Hemp Dogbane - Apocynum cannabinum

• Family: (Apocynaceae)
• Cardiac glycosides Latex Fiber Root; Cardiotonic; Syphilis

Identification

• "General: Perennial herb from a rhizome; stems erect to spreading, glabrous, 0.3-1.0 m tall, branching; plants with milky juice." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• "Leaves: Opposite, stalked to subsessile or sessile, oblong-egg-shaped or lanceolate, yellow-green, 5-11 cm long, except sometimes the basal leaves stalked but not heart-shaped at the base, ascending." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• "Flowers: Inflorescence of compound, flat-topped clusters; corollas greenish-white to white, 2-4.5 mm long, the corollas less than twice as long as calyx, lobes erect or slightly spreading." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• "Fruits: Long cylindric pods, usually greater than 12-18 cm long, sickle-shaped; seeds with tufts of cottony hairs (coma) 2-3 cm long." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• "Notes: The recognition of A. sibiricum and its segregates does not appear warranted." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• "Habitat / Range: Dry roadsides, ditches, pond and lake edges, fields, waste areas, shrublands and forest openings in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; frequent in BC south of 55degreeN; N to NT, E to NF and S to FL, TX and CA. "^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Status: Native. ^[E-flora]

USDA Flower Colour: White
USDA Blooming Period: Summer
USDA Fruit/Seed characteristics: Colour: White.Present from Summer to Fall ^{[USDA-E-flora]}

Hazards:

• "All the dogbanes are poisonous and have sometimes caused serious losses to livestock. Apparently the sticky, milky juice helps to render them unpalatable, since animals seldom eat the plants fresh, although they do sometimes consume them dry in hay. However, deaths to livestock from eating dogbane are rare. All species of dogbane should be avoided as food." ^[Harrington]
• "many patients are quite unable to take the drug because of the occurrence of emesis or purgation." ^{[Remington USD20]}
• "All parts of the plant are poisonous[1, 4, 19, 62]. It contains toxic cardioactive glycosides[222]." ^[PFAF]
• Cardiac glycosides (AHP). Nausea and GI symptoms may occur even at therapeutic dosage; topically may irritate mucous membranes (PHR). ^{[HMH Duke]}
• "The drug should be administered only by someone who is expert in its use. Topical irritation of the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal, accompanied by nausea and vomiting, is more common than in other drugs containing cardenolid glycosides. Vomiting and gastrointestinal irritations can occur, even with the administration of therapeutic doses of the drug because of the mucous membrane-irritating resin fraction."^[PDR]
• "Moore (1979) states that A. cannabinum is significantly more dangerous than A. androsaemifolium, and that the plants are not to be used interchangeably." ^{[Pendell PPPHC]}

Edible Uses

• Juice:
  • Milky juice hardens into a rubbery substance that has actually been used as a chewing gum. ^[Harrington]
  • "A latex obtained from the plant is used as a chewing gum[61, 94, 177]. After the latex has been squeezed from the plant it s allowed to stand overnight to harden into a white gum[257]. The latex was sometimes mixed with clean clay[257]." ^[PFAF] "From the dried milky fluid in the stems a substitute for chewing gum is made (39)" ^{[Krochmal&Paur]}
• Seeds: Ground into a meal to make fried cakes. ^[Harrington]" Seed - raw or cooked[257]. It can be ground into a powder and used as a meal[94]." ^[PFAF]

Other Uses

"This species, which has tough fibrous stems, does not grow on Vancouver Island, but was obtained through trade from the Fraser River Salish (Boas, 1890). It is undoubtedly the "flax-like plant growing on the mainland" which was used by the Westholme Indians (near Duncan) to make pursenets (Jenness, ca. 1945)." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}

• Cordage:
  • Harvesting: Plants "...die back in the winter, and hence are not harmed by late-season harvesting." ^{[FCTM USDA]}
  • The stems produce silky fibers in the late season. The stems can be soaked in water for a time, which separates the outer bark and this can be rubbed off and the silky fibers rolled into a twine. ^[Harrington]
  • "A very good quality fibre obtained from the bark is used for making clothes, twine, bags, linen, paper etc[1, 46, 61, 92, 94, 95, 189, 257]. It is about 12 - 18mm long[189]. Very strong[99], it is used as a flax substitute[57], it does not shrink and it retains its strength in water[99]. The fibre is produced late in the season[85PFAF], it can be harvested after the leaves fall in autumn but is probably at its best as the seed pods are forming[169]." ^[PFAF]
  • "...the first Californians tended patches of dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum) so that its stems would produce fibers suitable for weaving belts, tumplines, feather capes, skirts, and many other items." ^{[Anderson TTW]}
    • Indian-Hemp (Apocynum cannabinum var. glaberrimum)
      
      • "The work of preparing the fiber from the stems of this plant was the same as with that obtained from the Spanish Bayonet and Mescal plants." ^[EuCp]
      • "To obtain the fibers from the Spanish Bayonet, the green leaves were first soaked in water, then pounded on a Hat rock with a wooden mallet or beater, and plunged into water from time to time during the process to wash out the skin and the softer tissues. The fibers so released were fine, strong, and white. Cords and threads of different sizes were made for tying, binding, and sewing." "Mescal fiber was extracted from the dry leaves by beating, and from the fresh leaves by soaking and rotting off the pulp and outer skin, in much the same manner as the Yucca fibers were handled." "The fiber was used particularly in making fishing and carrying nets, for string and for ropes, and to some extent for weaving rough cloth." ^[EuCp]
  • "Kalm ([1753–1761] 1972) also published in 1753 that: “The people prepared the stalks of this plant, in the same manner as we prepare those of hemp or flax. It was spun, and several kinds of stuffs were woven from it. The savages are said to have had the art of making bags, fishing-nets, and the like, for many centuries together, before the arrival of the Europeans.” Later, he wrote: “... They made use neither of spinning-wheels nor distaffs, but rolled the filaments on their bare thighs, and made thread and strings of them, which they dyed red, yellow, black, &c. and afterwards worked them into stuffs, with a great deal of ingenuity.” ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • "Gilmore (1931) reported that fibers of Apocynum cannabinum had been used by the Ozark Bluff-Dwellers in Arkansas to make twine and cords. Later, Jones (1936) identified the fibers in textiles and cords at the rock shelter at Menifee County, Kentucky. Whitford (1941) found both Adena and Hopwellian woven fabrics made from Indian hemp. He also found its fibers in Arkansas cords, Fox and Sauk bags, a fish net used by the Nanticoke, and an Iroquois burden strap." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
• Paper: "When making paper, the stems can be retted by leaving them in the ground until they are dry in the winter or they can be harvested in late summer, the leaves removed and the stems steamed to remove the fibre[189]. The stems are then cooked for two hours with lye and pounded with mallets[189]." ^[PFAF]
• Latex: "The plant yields a latex which is a possible source of rubber[46, 61, 177]. The latex is also used as a chewing gum." ^[PFAF]
• Dye: "The plant is also used as a brown or black dye (Porcher 1863)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}

Medicinal Uses

"The plant is still used in modern herbalism, but it should be used with great caution, and only under the supervision of a qualified practitioner if taken internally[4, 222, 238]. See the notes above on toxicity[4, 222]. Indian hemp is an unpleasantly bitter stimulant irritant herb that acts on the heart, respiratory and urinary systems, and also on the uterus[238]. It was much employed by various native North American Indian tribes who used it to treat a wide variety of complaints including rheumatism, coughs, pox, whooping cough, asthma, internal parasites, diarrhoea and also to increase milk flow in lactating mothers[257]." ^[PFAF]

• Root:
  • Harvesting: "...the root of Apocynum cannabinum, which is gathered (and sometimes dried), in autumn." ^[PDR]
  • Dosage:
    • Tincture [1:5, 50% alcohol] 5-20 drops, to 3X a day. USE CAREFULLY! ^{[Moore(1995)]}
    • Daily Dosage: "The average daily dose of die liquid extract is 10 to 30 drops to be taken 3 times daily or 0.3 to 0.6 ml. of a 1:10 tincture." ^[PDR]
    • Homeopathic Dosage: "5 drops, 1 tablet or 10 globules every 30 to 60 minutes (acute) or every 1 to 3 days (chronic); Parenterally: 1 to 2 ml 3 times daily sc (HAB1)." ^[PDR]
    • "According to Alesejew the effect of the remedy appears, in proper cases, in two or three days. If no remedial action appeared in five days Alesejew made no further use of the remedy. He prescribed small doses (from three to five drops) three to four times a day. After larger doses he met at times gastric disturbances and pains in the cardiac region. Cumulative effects he did not encounter." ^[Ellingwood]
  • Historical Eclectic Use: "Menorrhagia in which the flow lasts more than 6 to 7 days, is profuse, as well as reoccurring too frequently (polymenorrhagia). Fullness of the abdomen, edema of face and/or eyelids." ^[BMWH]
  • Syphilis: Fresh root - Used for syphilis. [207] ^[PFAF]
  • Cardio-tonic: "From the roots a cardiac stimulant similar but inferior to digitalin is obtained (39)." ^{[Krochmal&Paur]}
  • Smoke: The Pillager Obijwa of North America smoked the roots to relieve headaches (Adams 1951). Other Native Americans inhaled the smoke produced by burning dried plants as a remedy for asthma even though this species is considered poisonous (Foster and Hobbs 2002).^[UAPDS]
  • "Constantine Rafinesque reported in 1828: “This is a very active plant, highly valued by the Southern Indians. It is tonic, emetic, alterative and antisyphilitic. The root is the most powerful part; but it must be used fresh, since time diminishes or destroys its power …it acts as an emetic, equal to Ipecacuana; in smaller doses, it is a tonic, useful in dyspepsias and fevers. The Chicksaws and Choctaw Nations employ it in syphilis and considered it as specific.”" ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • "The root bark is an emetic and cardiac stimulant (Mabberley 1997). However, it is poisonous to animals such as cats, dogs, and livestock due to the presence of resins and cardiac glycosides, including cymarin, apocannoside, cyanocannoside, apocynamarin, and others (Turner and Szczawinski 1991). As little as one-half ounce of the plant ingested by livestock may kill a large farm animal such as a cow (Foster and Caras 1994). While sickness and death have been reported among humans who used it in medicine (Diggs et al. 1999), Foster and Caras (1994), and Turner and Szczawinski (1991) say there are no records of humans having died after using it." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • "The fresh root is the most active part medicinally. It has been used as a tonic[207]. A weak tea made from the dried root has been used for cardiac diseases[207, 222]. A tea made from the root has been used as a vermifuge[213]." ^[PFAF]
  • Unproven Uses: "The juice of the fresh plant is used in the treatment of condylomatosis and warts. American Indians use the roots for asthma, dropsy, coughs, syphilis and rheumatism. In folk medicine, the root is used to strengthen weak heart muscles following pneumonia, valvular insufficiency and senile heart. It is also used as a diuretic." ^[PDR]
  • Homeopathic Uses: Homeopathic uses include cardiac insufficiency, renal inflammation with edema, and vomiting with diarrhea. ^[PDR]
• Sap:
  • Warts: "The milky sap is a folk remedy for venereal warts[222]." ^[PFAF]

More Medicinal

Although latterly apocynum has fallen into disuse, some physicians have insisted that the A. cannabinum is a valuable remedy and that its unfavorable reputation has arisen from the use of other species. The drug of commerce in recent years has consisted of several species of Apocynum. A number of physicians in the United States have come to the conclusion that the absorption of Apocynum in the gastro-intestinal tract is uncertain and irregular, which led to its being deleted from the Pharmacopoeia. ^{[Remington USD20]}

"...the official Apocynum cannabinum L., which is used as a diuretic and in cardiac and renal dropsy. The root extract has been used among white men as an emetic, cathartic, sudorific and expectorant." ^{[HuronSmith Zuni]}

Phytochemicals

• Harmala Alkaloids
  • Apocynum cannabinum L. Harmalol ^{[Otto 1994][Polya BTPBC][Allen&Holmstedt,1980]} - In-vevo effect; CBZ-R agonist (at 100) ^{[Polya BTPBC]}
• Cardioactive steroid glycosides (cardenolids):
  • cymarin ^[PDR]
  • Cymine - "Cardenollide glycoside cymine has an effect that is similar but generally weaker than glycoside strophantine, with the exception of the stronger diuretic effect in edema. It is less cumulative." ^[PDR]
  • k-strophantoside ^[PDR]
  • apocannoside ^[PDR]
  • cynocannoside ^[PDR]
  • Strophanthidin ^{[Barceloux MTNS]}
• Acetovanillone ^[EncyTCM1]
• Apocynein (from root), a yellowish glucoside. ^{[Dosimetrics]}
• Apocynin (from root), a resin-like amorphous substance, "We are concerned only with apocynin ^{[Dosimetrics]}
  • Activities: "Apocynin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-acetophenone) is isolated from the root of Picrorhiza kurroa, a creeping plant native to the mountains of India, Nepal, Tibet, and Pakistan. Apocynin may also be obtained from other sources, for example the rhizome of Canadian hemp (Apocynum cannabinum), and other Apocynum species (e.g., A. androsaemifolium). P. kurroa has long been used as an herbal medicine for the treatment of liver and heart problems, jaundice, and asthma. The anti-inflammatory property of this herb is attributed to its ability to prevent ROS and peroxide formation in the body." ^{[Benzie HM]}
    • "Apocynin is of particular value in the aged where the heart-muscles naturally become weaker, lose their tonicity and contractility. The pulse may be slow, but it is soft and easily compressed. Dyspnea follows slight muscular effort; Oedema of the ankles is frequently observed towards bedtime. Two or three granules of apocynin given every three or four hours will generally within several days produce marked improvement, and in time will effect a complete cure." ^{[Dosimetrics]}
    • "In all valvular lesions, where the heart-action is feeble, where it needs strengthening and tonin- up, apocynin will certainly prove a valuable remedy. The addition of strychnine increases very materially the power of all heart-tonics, and it can be added with benefit to this one. When large doses are given, probably one or two grains, apocynin is likely to produce emesis and diarrhea. This is a toxic effect which it is not necesary to produce." ^{[Dosimetrics]}
    • "In a number of cases of oedema, of the feet and legs, occurring in the aged as a result of cardiac muscular degeneration, apocynin strengthened the pulse-beat, increased the bloodpressure and relieved the oedema by increasing the activity of the kidneys. In these cases there was no increased action of the bowels. The dose prescribed was three granules every three hours." ^{[Dosimetrics]}
• Cymarose ^{[EncyTCM1][PCPB]}

Activities

• "The reports on this remedy so far as I have been able to follow them are unanimous in designating it as a cardiac tonic and diuretic. " ^[Ellingwood]

"In Pawinsky's (of Warsaw) notices about apocynum cannabinum the observations he made of the different effects of this remedy from those of digitalis on the vagus are interesting. He found that apocynum cannabinum acts more readily and energetically on the innervation of the heart than digitalis, but the effect of the latter is a more persistent one. He would, therefore, use the remedy at shorter intervals, especially in cases of arrhythmia. His dosage is somewhat higher: Eight to ten drops of the fluid extract two to three times a day. However, one should always begin with small doses." ^[Ellingwood]

"The high content of cardenolide glycosides causes bradycardia and increased contraction of the heart. Blood pressure is lowered, and rebound vagotonia hypertension can occur. The drug increases diuresis and stimulation of the vasomotor centers. It causes more severe irritation of the intestinal mucous membrane than digitalis and strophantus preparations. It has a lower therapeutic effect on atrial fibrillation than digitalis." ^[PDR]

Cultivation

• Thinning: "...thinning has been observed to enhance the growth..." ^{[FCTM USDA]}
• Lead Accumulation: "...shown to have superior Pb-accumulating properties (Berti and Cunningham 1993)." ^[SoilBio-19]
• Pesticide Absorption and Translocation: "A greater percentage of the total applied 2,4-D (31 vs. 14%) and glyphosate (14 vs. 8%) was translocated from upper rather than lower leaves of hemp dogbane, respectively. Higher temperatures (30 vs. 25 C) resulted in greater translocation of glyphosate (39 vs. 18%)but not 2,4-D (35 vs. 39%). Higher light intensities resulted in greater accumulations of 2,4-D into roots and of glyphosate into untreated areas of the treated leaf. Autoradiographs showed that both herbicides moved through hemp dogbane in a typical symplastic pattern and accumulated in roots and new leaves." ^{[Schultz&Burnside,1980]}

Use of Related Sp.

"There is considerable hybridization between species. Apocynum is Greek, meaning noxious to dogs.... The primary use of dogbanes is for fiber. The stem fibers are strong and can be used for rope making, mats, baskets, bowstrings, fishing lines and nets, sewing, animal-trap triggers, snares, cordage for bow and drill fire making, and general weaving. One of the easiest ways to isolate the fibers is to soak the stems in water." ^{[Vizgirdas WPSN]}

"Dogbanes should be considered poisonous to humans if ingested. However, some authorities have indicated that the small seeds can be parched and ground into a meal to make fried cakes. For example, Strike (1994) believes the seeds eaten were that of A. pumilum (mountain dogbane). A. pumilum is considered to be a subspecies of A. androsaemifolium." ^{[Vizgirdas WPSN]}

References

• Allen&Holmstedt,1980 - The Simple B-Carboline Alkaloids, James R.F. Allen and Bo R. Holmstedt, Phytochemiswy. 1980. Vol. 19. pp. 1573-1582., 0031-9422/80/0801-1573
• [E-flora] Apocynum cannabinum, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Apocynum cannabinum&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2013. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Flora of British Columbia (eflora.bc.ca). Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. [Accessed: 6/14/2014 10:38:38 PM ]
• EncyTCM1 - Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicines, Volume 1
• Krochmal&Paur - Useful Native Plants in the American Southwestern Deserts, A. KROCHMAL, S. PAUR AND P. DUISBERG, economic Botany
• [Otto 1994] Plants Containing Mao-Inhibiting B-Carbolines, Ayahuasca Analogues,Jonathan Otto,Natural Products Co., Kennewick,WA, 1994 --> Info taken from The Simple B-carboline Alkaloids, Allen & Holmstedt, 1980
• Schultz&Burnside,1980 - Absorption, Translocation, and Metabolism of 2,4-D and Glyphosate in Hemp Dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), M. E. Schultz and O. C. Burnside, Weed Science, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Jan., 1980), pp. 13-20, Weed Science Society of America and Allen Press, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4043156