Sting, cystoliths, Young leaves, Fibre, Various Medicinal Uses
Description
"Stinging nettle in British Columbia is represented by two subspecies: 1) Urtica dioica spp. dioica (which is an introduced taxon in North America) and Urtica dioica ssp gracilis (which is the native stinging nettle). Urtica dioica ssp gracilis is found throughout most of North America, while subspecies dioica is found mainly in the eastern and western states and provinces (AK, AL, CA, CT, DC, DE, FL, GA, IL, IN, MA, MD, ME, MI, NC, NH, NJ, NY, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, TN, VA, VT, WA, WV and BC, NB, NF, NS, ON, PE, QC), but is absent from the mid-west and prairie provinces (USDA 2010). In BC, the native subspecies is widespread, while the distribution of the introduced subspecies is not fully known. There are confirmed observations from the Greater Vancouver area (Vancouver, Burnaby, New Westminster, Surrey, Coquitlam), it is to be expected on Vancouver Island, and it may be present in the BC interior (Frank Lomer pers. com. 2010). It is confirmed on Valdes Island... Further work is needed to clarify its extent of occurrence in the province. The two subspecies are separated by flower morphology, and the presence of stinging hairs on either one or both leaf surfaces. See the identification key below for more details." [E-flora]
Origin Status:
ssp. dioica - Exotic [E-flora]
ssp. gracilis - Native [E-flora]
General: Perennial herb from strong rhizomes; stems erect, simple or branched, solitary, smooth except for a few stinging hairs and bristles, 100-300 cm tall. [IFBC-E-flora]
Leaves: Basal leaves lacking; stem leaves narrowly lanceolate to widely egg-shaped, opposite, the blades 7-15 cm long, coarsely toothed, stalked; stipules 5-15 mm long. [IFBC-E-flora]
Flowers: Inflorescence of male or female flowers in a 1-7 cm axillary panicle on the same or different plants; corollas lacking; sepals 4, 1-2 mm long; female flowers usually uppermost. [IFBC-E-flora]
Fruits: Achenes, egg-shaped, flattened, 1.0-1.5 mm long. [IFBC-E-flora]
Notes: The native taxon is best recognized as a single, highly variable subspecies (Bassett et al. 1974, Boufford 1997). [IFBC-E-flora]
Habitat: Moist to mesic streamsides, deciduous woodlands, thickets, avalanche tracks, and alluvial floodplains in the lowland and steppe to lower subalpine zones.[IFBC-E-flora]
Range: ssp. gracilis - common throughout BC; ssp. dioica - rare in SW BC (lower Fraser Valley); ssp. gracilis - N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to ME, NH, NY, PA, NC, MS, LA, TX, NM, AZ, CA, and MX; S America, ssp. dioica - introduced from Europe. [IFBC-E-flora]
This plant is a native of Europe and Asia but was introduced here and now ranges from Newfoundland west to Minnesota and south to the Carolinas, Missouri, and Colorado. It prefers waste places and roadsides but apparently is never very abundant anywhere. [EWP]
Hazards
Caution
High nitrate content of leaves. not recommended for infants.[Tardio MWEP]
Can be a mild laxative if eaten in excess. [Verotta CIWWS]
Pregnancy: "Caution has been advised during the first 3 months of pregnancy". [Verotta CIWWS]
"The German Commission E contraindicates the use of nettle leaf if oedema is due to impaired cardiac or renal function." [McIntyre AHTC]
Drug Interactions
"Possible interference with allopathic drugs for diabetes mellitus, hypertension. Central nervous system depression drugs (e.g. morphine, alcohol) may also interact with nettle. Avoid during pregnancy [301]."[PFAF]
"Diuretics: patients taking prescription diuretics should be monitored for additive effects." Missing Source
"Antihypertensives: there may be an additive effect if sufficient quantities are taken with antihypertensive medications."[McIntyre AHTC]
Stinging Hairs
"The leaves of the plants have stinging hairs, causing irritation to the skin[21, 200]. This action is neutralized by heat or by thorough drying, so the cooked leaves are perfectly safe and nutritious[200]."[PFAF]
"Much of the irritating contents of the stinging hairs are dissipated upon drying, but can still cause skin irritation when handling dry material." [Upton,2013]
"...stinging hairs (trichomes), whose tips come off when touched, transforming the hair into a needle that will inject several chemicals: acetylcholine, histamine, 5-HT or serotonin, and possibly formic acid. This mixture... causes a sting or paresthesia.... The pain and itching from a nettle sting can last from only a few minutes to as long as a week." [Eddouks PMDH]
Cystoliths "...only young leaves should be used because older leaves develop gritty particles called cystoliths which act as an irritant to the kidneys[172]."[PFAF]
Root "...root can cause gastrointestinal complaints, sweating, and allergic skin reactions..." [Ramzan PESR]
Fresh Juice
"...nettle juice can sometimes cause diarrhea. Topically, fresh nettle leaves can cause localized rash, itching, stinging, and tongue edema". [Ramzan PESR] "Contact dermatitis can occur with fresh leaf." [McIntyre AHTC]
Edible Uses
The Nettle, so far as I know, is not used for food in America, but it has long been used for that purpose in Europe.[EWP]
Young Tender Tops: "In the spring, the young tender tops are often boiled and eaten as greens by the common people of Scotland. According to Sir Walter Scott, it was at one time cultivated in the gardens of Scotland as a potherb. When boiled in soups, it is said to be very palatable. The tender tops are frequently eaten in Belgium, Germany, and other countries of Europe. It is also eaten in northern Persia." [EWP] "Young shoots less than five inches or before stinging hairs develop, are picked, chopped, and steamed like spinach." [Upton,2013] "The tender tips with the leaves are collected mainly in spring before flowering and usually consumed after cooking." They can be scalded in hot water to remove hairs and eaten raw. [Tardio MWEP]
Young Leaves: "Young leaves - cooked as a potherb and added to soups etc[1, 2, 9, 12, 13, 36, 183]. They can also be dried for winter use[12]. Nettles are a very valuable addition to the diet[244], they are a very nutritious food that is easily digested and is high in minerals (especially iron) and vitamins (especially A and C)[4, 201, 238]. Only use young leaves (see the notes above on toxicity) and wear stout gloves when harvesting them to prevent being stung. Cooking the leaves, or thoroughly drying them, neutralizes the sting, rendering the leaf safe to eat[4, 244]. The young shoots, harvested in the spring when 15 - 20cm long complete with the underground stem are very nice[85]. Old leaves can be laxative[5]. The plants are harvested commercially for extraction of the chlorophyll, which is used as a green colouring agent (E140) in foods and medicines[238]. A tea is made from the dried leaves, it is warming on a winters day[21, 183]. A bland flavour, it can be added as a tonic to China tea[238]. The juice of the leaves, or a decoction of the herb, can be used as a rennet substitute in curdling plant milks[183]."[PFAF]
Brewing Additive: "The plant has also been used to elaborate herbal liqueurs..." [Tardio MWEP] Nettle beer is brewed from the young shoots[200]."[PFAF]
Other Uses
Cordage: "A strong flax-like fibre is obtained from the stems[200]. Used for making string and cloth[1, 4, 6, 13, 36], it also makes a good quality paper[115]. It is harvested as the plant begins to die down in early autumn and is retted before the fibres are extracted[4, 99]. The fibre is produced in less abundance than from flax (Linun usitatissimum) and is also more difficult to extract[4]."[PFAF] Textile fibre extracted from the stem. [Tardio MWEP]
History: Cultivated in Europe during the 19th century until WW2. A long history as a fiber plant. [Vogl,2003] "The Kwakiutl, like other Northwest Coast groups, used nettle fibers to make twine, fishing nets, and ropes. The plants were gathered in October, split with a bone knife, dried for about 5 days, and pounded to remove the brittle outer "bark." The tough inner fibers were then spun into string and plaited into twine (Boas, 1909; Cranmer, 1969)." [Turner&Bell2]
Harvesting: "Fiber production of nettle begins with the second crop and continues successively." [Vogl,2003]
Qualities: Preliminary tests of tensile strength from U. dioica harvested in France showed that stinging nettle fiber was superior to that of hemp, ramie and sisal. [bodros,2008] "Compared with other natural fibers, nettle fibers have especially suitable characteristics for use in bed-linen (e.g., moisture absorption)".[Vogl,2003]
Hair: A hair wash is made from the infused leaves and this is used as a tonic and antidandruff treatment[172, 201].[PFAF] Used externally against alopecia and dandruff. [Tardio MWEP] The roots were washed, pounded and the juice extracted for a hair wash to prevent hair from falling out. [Turner&Bell2]
Lighting: "An oil obtained from the seeds is used as an illuminant[4]."[PFAF]
Repellent: "The growing plant increases the essential oil content of other nearby plants, thus making them more resistant to insect pests[18, 20, 54]. Although many different species of insects feed on nettles, flies are repelled by the plant so a bunch of freshly cut stems has been used as a repellent in food cupboards[4]."[PFAF] Biopesticide from plant maceration. [Tardio MWEP]
Rennet: "The juice of the plant, or a decoction formed by boiling the herb in a strong solution of salt, will curdle milks and thus acts as a rennet substitute[4]. This same juice, if rubbed into small seams of leaky wooden tubs, will coagulate and make the tub watertight again[4]." [PFAF] Young leaves used to curdle milk. [Tardio MWEP]
Dye: "A beautiful and permanent green dye is obtained from a decoction of the leaves and stems[4, 115]. A yellow dye is obtained from the root when boiled with alum[4, 115]." [PFAF] Yellow dye from root. [Tardio MWEP] "Though chlorophyll is found in all the green plants, but commercially it is derived from the leaves of stinging nettle, Urtica dioica..." [Singh HNDP]
Biomass: "The plant matter left over after the fibres have been extracted are a good source of biomass and have been used in the manufacture of sugar, starch, protein and ethyl alcohol[4]." [PFAF]
Fodder: Used "extensively" as a fooder for various species of animals. Said to improve quality of livestock production and brighten hair of horses. [Tardio MWEP]
Medicinal Uses
"An infusion of the plant is very valuable in stemming internal bleeding[4], it is also used to treat anaemia, excessive menstruation, haemorrhoids, arthritis, rheumatism and skin complaints, especially eczema[238]. Externally, the plant is used to treat skin complaints, arthritic pain, gout, sciatica, neuralgia, haemorrhoids, hair problems etc[238]. The fresh leaves of nettles have been rubbed or beaten onto the skin in the treatment of rheumatism etc[257]. This practice, called urtification, causes intense irritation to the skin as it is stung by the nettles. It is believed that this treatment works in two ways. Firstly, it acts as a counter-irritant, bringing more blood to the area to help remove the toxins that cause rheumatism. Secondly, the formic acid from the nettles is believed to have a beneficial effect upon the rheumatic joints. For medicinal purposes, the plant is best harvested in May or June as it is coming into flower and dried for later use[4, 238]. This species merits further study for possible uses against kidney and urinary system ailments[222]." [PFAF]
"The primary use of stinging nettle herb among a sampling of traditional herbalists in the US, Australia, Canada, New
Zealand, and the United Kingdom is as a tonic or nutritive agent, alterative, and for arthritic conditions." [Upton,2013]
Part: " The medicinal parts are the fresh and dried flowering plant and the roots." [PDR]
Storage: ...18 months is considered an appropriate shelf life for properly dried nettle herb. Fresh nettle juice may be preserved for 6 months using 25% alcohol and refrigeration." [Upton,2013]
Quality: "High quality nettle herb has a rich deep green color with few stems present and those present are small in size. Faded or darkened coloration or presence of large stems is an indication of poor quality material." [Upton,2013]
Dosages:
"Infusion: 15 g of stinging nettle leaf in 1 L of boiled water 4–8 h." [Upton,2013]
"Decoction: Prepare with up to 5 g of herb to 250–350 mL water; bring to a boil, and gently simmer for 10 min and strain." [Upton,2013]
Tea (Root) "...1.5 g coarse powdered drug in cold water, heat to boiling point for 1 minute, then steep, covered, for 10 minutes, and strain. (1 teaspoonful = 1.3 g drug)" [PDR]
Leaves:
Harvesting: "Collection of stinging nettle herbs should be performed in select areas, avoiding locations where agribusiness and industrial runoffs occur as the plant is known to accumulate heavy metals in the leaves. After seeding, stinging nettle leaves lose their vitality quickly, so it is recommended to harvest stinging nettle before seeding or immediately after seeding and before the leaves wilt. Harvesting, storage, and drying should be performed accurately to avoid browning due to oxidation." [Verotta CIWWS]
Tea: A tea made from the leaves has traditionally been used as a cleansing tonic and blood purifier so the plant is often used in the treatment of hay fever, arthritis, anaemia etc[254]. [PFAF] "The daily use of herbal tea is effective against low energy and fatigue". [Verotta CIWWS]
Tonic: "Internal use of stinging nettle leaf is primarily as a tonic food in Europe and America." [Upton,2013]
Anti-allergen: "Traditionally, herbalists may recommend starting a three-month course of stinging nettle herb in anti-allergy combinations suited to the individual, prior to the onset of allergy season.... German phytotherapists include the herb among antitussives such as coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara), heartsease (Viola tricolor), and plantain (Plantago spp.) (Bradley, 1992)." [Upton,2013]
Rheumatism: Folk remedy for rheumatic pain. "alcoholic tincture which can be applied as part of a topical preparation, but not as an infusion, which drastically reduces the irritant action." [Eddouks PMDH]"A widespread method of using stinging nettle as a warming analgesic and anti-inflammatory is to rub a liniment of fresh plant on affected muscles and joints". [Upton,2013]
Seeds: "a survey regarding the use of stinging nettle herb by professional members of the American Herbalists Guild (AHG, 2004) was conducted, and the findings from the 26 respondents are that the nettle seeds are used to increase energy, as a kidney support, and as an anti-inflammatory." [Verotta CIWWS] "...many herbal practitioners purposely use the seeds either alone or in conjunction with stinging nettle leaves both for nutritive and diuretic effects." [Upton,2013]
Root" "The root is still used by traditional herbalists as it was used by Eclectic physicians, not only for hematuria, but also for reproductive bleeding, hemoptysis, and gastro-intestinal bleeding with or without diarrhea." [Upton,2013]
Juice: "Freshly pressed juice can be taken for its various indications, 1 tablespoon 3 times a day (Weiss and Fintelmann, 2000), or as much as 0.5–1 oz “at intervals of several hours” to treat hemorrhage, dysentery, diarrhea, and kidney stones, and cardiac edema (dropsy) (Stillé et al., 1896). Moore describes preserving juice with 25% alcohol or freezing in ice cube trays (Moore, 1993)." [Upton,2013]
Dermatological: "By its depurative action, nettle helps clear the skin in eczema, urticaria and other chronic skin problems." [McIntyre AHTC]
Pregnancy: "Nettle is one of the best herbs to use in pregnancy due to its appreciable amounts of vitamins and minerals, including calcium and iron. Used throughout the pregnancy, nettle can help to improve energy, strengthen the blood vessels, reduce varicose veins, alleviate leg cramps, prevent anemia, and decrease the likelihood of hemorrhage during childbirth. This is an herb that can be taken in all forms, including freshly picked young leaves and as a leafy green addition to steamed vegetables or salads." [Hudson WENM] "Nettle roots were washed, pounded, and the juice was extracted to make a drink for pregnant women who were overdue to make the baby come faster." [Turner&Bell2]
Ethnobotany
"Urtica dioica has been used traditionally in Morocco, Turkey, Brazil, Jordan, Iran and many other countries." [Mehri et al.,2011]
Smoke: "Smoke inhaled from burning the leaves is an old remedy for asthma and bronchitis." [McIntyre AHTC]
Misc Combinations:
"For pains in the chest, nettles were rubbed on the skin, and then hellebore (Veratrum viride) was applied. A person with locomotor ataxia would cut the bottoms of his feet with shells and rub them with nettles and hellebore roots to make the disease clear up (op. cir. )." [Turner&Bell2]
Research
"The blood sugar lowering effect of Urtica dioica has been mentioned in old script such as those written by Avicenna. There have been other reports indicating the benefits of using the infusion or the extract of the leaves or other parts of this plant for the use in diabetes (Ramos et al., 1992; Swanston-Flatt et al., 1989). Moreover, it is used internally and externally as supportive therapy for prostatic hyperplasia (Hirano et al., 1994; Krzeski et al., 1993; Kayser et al., 1995), inflammation (Obertreis et al., 1996), rheumatoid arthritis, hypertension and allergic rhinitis (Mittman, 1990)." [Mehri et al.,2011]
"In conclusion, considering all available evidences, the integration of chemical drugs with Urtica dioica may be possible and recommendable for management of diabetes. As a matter of fact, antioxidant composition of Urtica dioica should be noted as an excellent influencing element in management of diabetes and its complications (Rahimi et al., 2005; Momtaz and Abdollahi, 2010; Sarkhail et al., 2007; Mohseni-Salehi-Monfared et al., 2009; Milani et al., 2005; Malihi et al., 2009)." [Mehri et al.,2011]
Ayurveda
The tender leaves are astringent, pungent and slightly bitter. The quality is "Unctuous", the potency cold, dosha effect is PK-, V+. The actions are "Astringent, hemostatic, diuretic, galactagogue, expectorant, tonic,
nutritive". [Verotta CIWWS] The parts used are the aerial parts of the young plants (roots & seeds also used). The taste is astringent, post digestive is pungent, potency is cooling. [McIntyre AHTC]
Phytochemistry
Flowering Plant: In the stings of the fresh plant: histamine, serotonin,
acetylcholine, formic acid, leukotriens (LTB4, LTC4, LTD4) [PDR] Flavonoids (0.7-1.8%): including rutin, isoquercitrin
(0.02%), astragalin, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside [PDR] Silicic acid (1-4%): partially water-soluble [PDR] Volatile oil: chief components are ketones, including, among
others, 2-methylhept-2-en-6-on [PDR] Potassium-ions (0.6% in the fresh foliage)
Nitrates (1.5 to 3%)'' [PDR]
"Tannins in leaves containing pyrocatechol, protocatechuic acid, and ploroglucinol triple in yield from March (3.5%) to August (10.2%) and then decrease from September (7.6%) to October (5.8%)." [Upton,2013]
"...findings suggest that cultivation of U. dioica for medicinal purposes with a high yield of bioactive compounds is a compromise between a high yield of plant material and the content of flavonol glycosides and phenolic acids in the harvested product." [Upton,2013]
Essential Oil: "The essential oil of the aerial parts contain esters (14.7%), free alcohols (2%), and ketones (38.5%) identified as 2-methyl-2-hepten-2-one, acetophenone and ethylketone, and traces of nitrogenous substances, phenols, and aldehydes (Frank et al., 1998; Naves and Ardizio, 1955). These values must be taken as relative rather than absolute values due to the age of the analytical studies and the non-specificity of the techniques used at the time." [Upton,2013]
Fatty Acids: "Rafajlovska et al. (2001) investigated the presence and relative quantity of fatty acids in stinging nettle herb extracts. As much as 6.8%, 1.1%, 3.6%, 20.2%, and 12.4% of the lipid fraction of C16:0 (palmitic), C18:0 (stearic), C18:1 (oleic), C18:2 (linoleic), and C18:3 (linolenic), respectively, were found. In contrast, Guil-Guerrero et al. (2003) found that <-linolenic acid was the predominant fatty acid in leaves, while seeds are richer in linoleic acid." [Upton,2013]
"Nettle has long been used to stimulate milk production in nursing mothers and to help to regulate periods." [McIntyre AHTC]
Rubefacient. [Eddouks PMDH] "Urtication, or flogging with nettles, is the process of deliberately applying stinging nettles to the skin in order to provoke inflammation."[Eddouks PMDH]
"The whole plant is antiasthmatic, antidandruff, astringent, depurative, diuretic, galactogogue, haemostatic, hypoglycaemic and a stimulating tonic[4, 9, 21, 36, 165, 238]." [PFAF]
"Its water extract was tested for antimicrobial activity against several bacteria, showing a good effectiveness in inhibiting Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus epidermis, E. coli, Proteus mirabilis, Citrobacter koseri, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Enterobacter aerogenes (Gülçin et al. 2004)." [Tardio MWEP]
Pharmacology
"Nettle seems to have an antiproliferative effect on prostatic epithelial and stromal cells, which could be a potential mechanism of action in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)." [Ramzan PESR]
"There is evidence that oral or topical use of nettle leaf extract might reduce pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Some clinicians use nettle leaf extract in combination with conventional nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or other analgesics. Evidence suggests that adding nettle might allow for a lower analgesic dose in some patients." [Ramzan PESR]
B12 Increase in Blood: "In an open trial, herbalists Burgess and Baillie (1999) studied the effects of stinging nettle herb infusion on blood work in ten healthy women. They infused 15 g of stinging nettle herb in 1 L of boiling water, letting it cool 4–8 h, and drinking a liter of the strained tea daily for 12 days. Blood samples before and after showed a significant increase in vitamin B12. Burgess and Baillie suggest this could be due to an effect on the intrinsic factor in the stomach, an effect on the absorption of the B12-intrinsic factor complex, a possible encouragement of B12 producing bacteria in the gut, or a possibility that stinging nettle contains B12 analogs." [Upton,2013]
Carcinogenicity: "Nettle is reported to elicit some anticarcinogenic and antioxidant activity in animal models (Celik and Tuluce, 2007; Kanter et al., 2003; Kapadia et al., 2002)." [Upton,2013]
Has been prescribed as a food in cases of anemia. "In Tibetan medicine, it is used as a vegetable to enhance digestion and to restore the seven dhatus...". [Verotta CIWWS]
"Stinging nettle contains 5–6% protein in fresh plants and 23–24% in dry plants; 70% of these quantities are digestible proteins". [Upton,2013]
"...large variations in the nutrient content have been observed due to the seasons and regions of harvest." [Upton,2013]
"Stinging nettle also contains 1–1.2% fat in fresh plants and 4.8–8.1% in dry plants (Bertók, 1956). A lower fat content was reported in the whole of dry young plants (3.37%) and in dry adult leaves (2.92%)...." [Upton,2013]
Fibres
"In the past, nettle fibres were widely used to make rope,
string, and cloth. For example, nettle thread was used in Poland
from the 12th to the 17th century when it was replaced by silk
[3]. During World War I, the Germans used nettle fibres to make
tents, rucksacks, undershirts, socks; 85% of their clothes were
made out of nettle fibres. The green colour of unbleached nettle
fibres was valued by the army for camouflage equipment [4]." [bodros,2008]
"Unfortunately, the nettle fibre textile industry was abandoned
for technical and cost-effectiveness reasons. Indeed, the fibre
extraction could not entirely be mechanized and as soon as the
cost of labour increased, farming nettles was not profitable, and
the cultivation ceased [3]." [bodros,2008]
Case studies
France (Brittany region) Stems "...cut and dried for two days before being retted in water for 7 days at the end of September. They were then dried at room temperature for several weeks. The fibres were manually extracted (with a great deal of care not to damage the fibre).... The fibres' average diameter is 19.9 µm (±4.4).... Stinging nettle and flax fibres can be considered as high performance fibres since they have a low density." [bodros,2008]
Cultivation:
"Both species of stinging nettle (U. dioica & U. urens) prefer to grow in soil that is
nitrogen rich and it is common to find them growing in areas
high in inorganic nitrates and heavy metals. Heavy metals are
poorly processed by the plant and tend to accumulate in the leaves.... The leaves can contain 10–20% of the
nitrate stored by the stems, the physiologically older leaves
containing less than the younger leaves...". [Upton,2013]
Herb Cultivation: "Second-year plantings are reported to provide the highest yields....A higher yield is possible if the harvest cut is taken just
before flowering occurs. ...transplantation increased stinging nettle stand establishment compared to direct seeding and increased dry weight
yields by a factor of 3 or more". [Upton,2013]
Fungal Associations: "Leptosphaeria acuta fruits in abundance in
spring at the base of overwintered, decorticated
stems of stinging nettles (Urtica dioica)." [IntrotoFun3] "...Stropharia species are commonly
found on nutrient-rich sites (e.g. compost heaps) and colonize Urtica
dioica rhizomes and other small woody and non-woody litter..." [FIE Cambridge]
Compost: "An essential ingredient of 'QR' herbal compost activator[32]. This is a dried and powdered mixture of several herbs that can be added to a compost heap in order to speed up bacterial activity and thus shorten the time needed to make the compost[K]. The leaves are also an excellent addition to the compost heap[12, 18, 20] and they can be soaked for 7 - 21 days in water to make a very nutritious liquid feed for plants[54]. This liquid feed is both insect repellent and a good foliar feed[14, 18, 53]." [PFAF]
References
E-flora - Urtica dioica, [[http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Urtica%20dioica, In Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2014. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia [eflora.bc.ca]. Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. [Accessed: 11/12/2014]
[bodros,2008] Study of the tensile properties of stinging nettle fibres (Urtica dioica), E. bodros, C. baley, Materials Letters 62 (2008) 2143 - 2145
[Vogl,2003] Production and processing of organically grown fiber nettle (urtica dioica) and its potential use in the natural textile industry: A review, C.R. Vogl and A. Hartl, American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, Volume 18, Issue 03, September 2003, pp 119-128
Recommended Sites
Nettle fibre processing
ANCIENT THREADS WORKING WITH GREEN NETTLES - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VSq4ynO-lRs
