"[Annual] perennial herb (may flowering 1st year); hairs bristly, bases bulbous or not. Stem: ± erect. Leaf: basal and cauline, petioled to sessile, clasping, lance-linear [oblong to oblanceolate], ± entire. Inflorescence: axillary or terminal, generally spike-like cymes; tip coiled. Flower: corolla funnel-shaped to salverform, pale blue to violet, appendages 5, ovate to oblong, ± puberulent; stamens included to exserted. Fruit: nutlets 1–4, erect, ± ovoid, irregularly angled or wrinkled, exposed attachment scar basal or oblique, scar surrounded by thick rim.
± 35 species: Eurasia, Africa. Ornamental, cultivated for drugs, dyes. (Greek: ancient name for alkanet) Anchusa arvensis (L.) M. Bieb. occasionally in orchards.
Unabridged references: [Greuter 1965 Candollea 20:192–210]" [Jepson]
"There are 30 species in the genus
Anchusa found in Europe and Asia, several growing in open fields and waste
places." [Bajaj MAPS 6]
HISTORICAL ERA (16th-18th Century Literature) Genus: Anchusa (A broad group)
Primary Reference: "Anchusa tinctoria"
Property: POTENT RED DYE
↓ Taxonomic Classification Splits ↓
MODERN (True Alkanet) Genus: Alkanna
Species: A. tinctoria
Common Name: True Alkanet
Dye Status: VALIDATES HISTORICAL DYE TEXTS
MODERN (Common Alkanet) Genus: Anchusa
Species: A. officinalis (etc.)
Common Name: False Alkanet / Bugloss
Dye Status: NEGLIGIBLE / WEAK DYE (Is wrongly cited because of the name link)
WHY YOU FIND DYE REFERENCES IN ANCHUSA LIT: Modern Anchusa species inherited the *names* and *literature* of a plant ("Anchusa tinctoria") that was moved to a different genus (Alkanna). It is a persistent error based on historical synonymy.
CHEMISTRY: The Alkannin Molecule
The functional difference lies in a specific naphthoquinone compound called AlkanninC16H16O5.
Lipophilic Solubility: Unlike common plant pigments, Alkannin is fat-soluble. It will not "bleed" into water but creates intense red hues in oils, waxes, and alcohols—the primary reason it was favored for historical ointments and wood stains.
pH Sensitivity: It serves as a natural pH indicator; it remains deep red in acidic environments but shifts to purple or blue when exposed to alkaline (basic) substances.
The Anchusa Gap: While Anchusa officinalis contains tannins and mucilage, it lacks the high concentration of naphthoquinones found in Alkanna, rendering it useless for traditional oil-based dyeing.
Hazards
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
"Use internally
with caution, the plant contains the alkaloid cynoglossine which can have
a paralyzing effect(12) and carcinogenic.(13)" (Hussain et al., 2019)
"Pyrrolizidine alkaloids. PAs occur mainly in members of the families Boraginaceae (e.g. Symphytum, Echium, Anchusa, Heliotropium), Asteraceae (e.g.
Senecio, Adenostyles) and Fabaceae (mainly tribe Crotalarieae) (Wink and Van
Wyk, 2008). Many representatives of these families are used for medicinal
purposes (Roder, 1995). More than 6000 species contain alkaloids with this
basic structure." [Wink APR39]
General Anchusa Uses
Food Use
"In his works, he equally presented Hungarian and Romanian folk names of
plants. He examined Romanian historical sources in many cases, such as in his
paper on the written records on food plants (Amaranthus, Anchusa, Rumex and
Tussilago) consumed by Romanians during the 19th century famines (Gunda
1966a)." [Svanberg EE]
Medicinal Use
"The genus Anchusa (Boraginaceae)
consists of about 170 taxa native worldwide (32).
Some Anchusa species are used as diuretic,
analgesic, sedative and hypotensive agents in
traditional medicine. Anchusa species contain some
triterpene glycosides and flavonoids (38)." (Taskin&Bitis.,2016)
"Anchusa species are used in folk medicine for wound healing and as a
diuretic agent.(11) The whole plant is antitussive, depurative and diuretic.
It is harvested when in flower and dried for later use. The dried and
powdered herb is used as a poultice to treat inflammations." (Hussain et al., 2019)
Jepson - Ronald B. Kelley, Robert Patterson, Richard R. Halse & Timothy C. Messick, family description, key to genera; treatment of genera by Ronald B. Kelley, 2013. Anchusa, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=8754, accessed on Dec 24 2014
Tardio,2006 - Tardío, Javier, Manuel Pardo-de-Santayana, and Ramón Morales. "Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants in Spain." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 152.1 (2006): 27-71.
"Anchusa arvensis (Linnaeus) M. Bieberstein
Lycopsis arvensis Linnaeus
bugloss
Europe, western Asia; introduced into North America
(Name confusion suspected) A herb described by Dioscorides under the
name Anchusa, which means ‘ox-tongue’ in Greek, has been identified with
various plants with rough and prickly leaves. The bugloss which occurs in
light cultivated soils across much of the British Isles, A. arvensis, is a likely
plant to have attracted herbal use, but the one or two records in the folk lit-
erature ascribed to that lack botanical authentication and could equally well
belong to other species. In Ireland, the similar name boglus has also been
applied too variously for any certainties." [MPFT]
freitas2004 - Freitas, H., M. N. V. Prasad, and J. Pratas. "Analysis of serpentinophytes from north–east of Portugal for trace metal accumulation––relevance to the management of mine environment." Chemosphere 54.11 (2004): 1625-1642.
Anchusa azurea - Italian bugloss
Anchusa azureaAnchusa azureaAnchusa azurea
Identification
"Anchusa azurea is a PERENNIAL growing to 1.5 m (5ft) by 0.6 m (2ft in).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 3. It is in flower from Jun to August, and the seeds ripen from Jul to September. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees.It is noted for attracting wildlife.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil and can tolerate drought." [PFAF]
General: "Perennial herb from a taproot, spreading stiff-hairy; stems mostly single, 0.4-1.5 m tall." [IFBC-E-flora]
Habitat / Range
"Mesic to dry waste places, forest edges and shrubby banks in the lowland zone; rare on Vancouver Island, known only from Malahat area; introduced from Europe."[IFBC-E-flora]
"Sides of arable fields, waste places, roadsides and steppes on stony hills[45, 187]. Europe - Caucasus. An occasional garden escape in Britain[17]." [PFAF]
"Anchusa azurea (Syn. Anchusa italica) belong to the Boraginaceae family and were distributed in the
temperate, especially in Mediterranean regions." (Hussain et al., 2019)
"It is also found in Western Asia (Iraq, Pakistan, Israel,
Cyprus, Turkey, etc), Causcasus (e.g.: Azerbaijan. Soviet and Middle Asia:
Kazakhstan etc.) and Tropical Asia (e.g.: Pakistan). It is believed to be
originated from the Mediterranean areas from Portugal and east to the
Caucasus.[9]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Status: Exotic.[E-flora]
Hazards
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
"Other toxic compounds distributed widely in wild greens are pyrrolizidine
alkaloids, which occur in some botanical families, mainly in Boraginaceae species, most
of them being not only hepatotoxic (Smith & Culvenor, 1981) but also having carcinogenic, mutagenic, genotoxic, foetotoxic, and teratogenic properties (Wiedenfeld
& Edgar, 2011). The presence of such compounds is reported to occur in Anchusa
species (Boraginaceae) (Boeder, (1999); however, A. azurea (alkanet) has been
discussed as a wild green due to its favourable fatty acid composition (Morales et al.,
2012), without warning about its possible toxicity and/or providing any indication about
safe preparation. In this sense, a suitable culinary preparation for removing toxins is
crucial." (Guil-Guerrero, José Luis, 2014)
"European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) shows that the plant contains toxic
pyrrolizidine alkaloids: lycopsamine and untoxicpyrrolizidine alkaloids:
laburnine and acetyllaburnine.[21] The plant shows positive tests for
alkaloids and tannins and it contained oil rich in Vitamin E." (Hussain et al., 2019)
Edible Uses
"The consumption of the fruits of the nettle tree (Celtis australis, »almez«
in Spanish) is a good example of uses that were clearly practiced in Spain in the
seventeenth century. He observed that they were given to children in Aragon
as a medicinal food when they overate and had a stomach ache to aid in their
digestion (ms 3363: 129). Cienfuegos also reported many original data about
food, preservatives, fodder, fertilizer and ornamental plants. For instance, regarding the local consumption of some wild vegetables, he mentioned the use of the
rounded-leaved sorrel (Rumex scutatus) as a raw vegetable in Aragon and even it
being sold in the city of Zaragoza in spring (ms 3359: 51). He also cited the local
consumption in stews of other wild vegetables, such as Allium ampeloprasum,
Rumex pulcher, Anchusa azurea and Silene vulgaris, particularly important in
times of scarcity (ms 3358: 521)." [Svanberg EE]
Flowers
"Raw. An excellent and decorative addition to the salad bowl, or used as a garnish [183]." [PFAF]
Anchusa azurea Mill. - Flowers sucked by children for nectar; basal leaves, stewed (Spring) (Tardio,2006)
"Raw flowers are an excellent and decorative additions to the salad bowl, or
used as a garnish.[17]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Young leaves and young flowering shoots
"The tender young leaves and young flowering shoots can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable[7]." [PFAF]
Leaves and branches - roasted. "Species such as ... Anchusa azurea Mill., are sliced thinly, fried,
then eaten either by adding egg, and black pepper and chili for flavour, or by adding yogurt with crushed
garlic for flavour."(dogan2004) "basal leaves, stewed" (Tardio,2006)
"The tender young leaves and young flowering shoots
can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable.[12] In Tunisia, the young leaves were
used to be mixed with those of wild sorrel and eaten in soup.[18]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Other Uses
Dye
"A red dye is obtained from the root[7]. This was at one time used as a basis for some cosmetics[7]." [PFAF]
Medicinal Uses
Plant
"The whole plant is antitussive, depurative, diaphoretic and diuretic[7].
It is harvested when in flower and dried for later use. The dried and powdered herb
is used as a poultice to treat inflammations[7]. Use internally with
caution, the plant contains the alkaloid cynoglossine which can have a
paralyzing effect[7]." [PFAF]
"Flowers used like tea, tonic to invalids and children; lowers pulsation. It
is a substitute of Anchusa officinalis, used as a diaphoretic and diuretic.[10]
nerves, vision, arthritis.[14] The recommended use for plant flowers and
roots are antidiabetic, while the recorded literature uses are weight loss.[7]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Folk Use
"The Mediterranean native A. azurea has long been utilized in folk medicine because of its wound-healing
properties [14]." (Al-Qaisi, Talal, et al.)
"A. azurea was used
traditionally as stimulant, tonic, demulcent, in bilious complaints, fever,
cough and asthma and as diuretic in bladder and kidney stones.[4-6] It was
also used as diaphoretic, narcotic, hypnotic, antiarthritis, antirheumatic
and cathartic.[7] The leaves of the plant were used as decoction in cold,
sore throat and chest pain.[8]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Frequency of Use
"A list of 158 plant species which was still gathered and consumed by traditional Lebanese
communities was compiled. The species belonged to 21 families and the most diverse families
were Asteraceae (77 species), Brassicaceae (22), and Apiaceae (11). Native species accounted
for 147 of the cited species, five of which were endemics to Lebanon and Syria. According to
the Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) index, Anchusa azurea, Centaurea hyalolepis, Chondrilla
juncea, Eruca vesicaria, Pseudopodospermum molle, Pseudopodospermum papposum, and Taraxacum sect.
Taraxacum were reported for the first time among the top popular species." (Baydoun, Safaa, et al.)
"According to RFC of the cited species, among the most popular species cited by interviewed informants were
Anchusa azurea Mill. (0.76), Amaranthus graecizans L. (0.75), Centaurea hyalolepis Boiss. (0.78), Chondrilla
juncea L. (0.75), Cichorium intybus (1.00), Eruca vesicaria (1.00), Eryngium creticum Lam. (1.00), Foeniculum
vulgare Mill. (1.00), Gundelia tournefortii L. (1.00), Malva sylvestris (1.00), Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton
(1.00), Origanum syriacum L. (1.00), Portulaca oleracea (1.00), Pseudopodospermum molle (M. Bieb.) Kuth. (0.75),
Pseudopodospermum phaeopappum (Boiss.) Zaika, Sukhor. and N. Kilian (0.75), and Taraxacum sect. Taraxacum
F.H.Wigg. (0.80; Table 1)." (Baydoun, Safaa, et al.)
"In addition, studies form other Mediterranean countries have also shown high levels of folates (vitamin B9)
and ascorbic acid in the leaves and shoots of Anchusa azurea, Cichorium intybus,
Foeniculum vulgare, Malva sylvestris, and Portulaca oleracea (Pinela et al., 2017).
Such species are now well recognized for their
high adaptive capacities to unique climatic and environmental conditions which makes their integration
in agricultural production systems very important for the sustainability, climate resilience and
diversification of food (Padulosi et al., 2011; Food Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), 2018; Ulian et al., 2020)." (Baydoun, Safaa, et al.)
Actions
"Because of its potential as a medication, A. azurea is an intriguing blooming plant that has attracted
attention [10]. The tender young leaves and young flowering shoots have long been used for a variety
of purposes, such as reducing inflammation, stopping bleeding [11], acting as a diuretic for kidney
and bladder stones, and acting as a stimulant, tonic, and demulcent when used for fever, coughing,
and asthma [12]. To treat burns and wounds, A. azurea is also administered externally as an ointment
[13]." (Al-Qaisi, Talal, et al.)
"A. azurea possessed many pharmacological effects; these included anticancer,
antioxidant and antiviral effects etc." (Hussain et al., 2019)
Anchusa azurea
Melancholy (FontQuer) [Duke]
under syn. Anchusa italica
Diaphoretic ; Diuretic ; Lower ; Tea ; Tonic (Al-Rawi) [Duke2]
Anchusa italica Retz. / Boraginaceae / As sedative, diaphoretic, hypotensive [UNIDO Asia]
Pharmacological Research
"This genus could be a promising source for the development of novel
strategies to cure fatal maladies. Further consideration, standardization and
clinical trials of pharmacological potential of A. azurea is essential for its
recommendation as a medicine at safer level. The information summarized
above will serve as a reference tool for the research groups working in the
area of developing alternatives of synthetic drug. However, there is a need
to evaluate the therapeutic potential on modern scientific lines through
clinical trials, phytochemicals and pharmacological studies. Experimental
studies have demonstrated its anticancer, neuroprotective, antimalarial,
anthelmintic, antipyretic, antidepressant, antiulcer, antibacterial and
antioxidant activities." (Hussain et al., 2019)
"Anchusa italica Retz is a perennial plant bearing flowers [7]. Kurds used this
plant in food preparation; it was also used as an antitussive, depurative, diuretic, and
anti-inflammatory. The flower is harvested and dried for further use. The plant is rich in
the alkaloid cynoglossine, which is known for its carcinogenic and paralyzing effects [8].
The flowers of the plant have been traditionally used as a tonic for children and also lower
heart rate [9]. This plant is also used to treat cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases
and diabetes [10,11]. Many studies have shown its anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and
antioxidants activities [4,12]. Plants are an important source of phenolic compounds, which
are known for their antibacterial properties and can have applications as natural preserva-
tives either in the food field or in the cosmetic field [4,12-14]. Previous chemical studies
have shown that Anchusa italic Retz is rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, saponins, tannins,
vitamin E [15-18]. The seeds of the plant are rich in saturated fatty acids, unsaturated
fatty acids, and alkaloids [19-22]." (Khomsi, M. E., et al.)
Antiviral effects
"The antiinfluenza virus activity of aqueous and alcoholic extract of Anchusa
italica plant (2.5-80 µg/ml) was investigated on the viral infected Madin
Darbey -Canine Kidney cell monolayer. A. azurea extracts possessed higher
antiviral properties when used one hour before infection compared to their
usage after infection. However, the antiviral effect of alcoholic extract was
more pronounced than that of the aqueous preparation. The antiviral
activity of A. azurea was likely due to interference with viral replication
and transcription; accordingly, A. azurea can be use such as amantadin
for the treatment of influenza.[26]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Cytotoxic Activity
"The cytotoxic activity of Anchusa italica against
MCF-7, HepG2, WEHI and MDBK cell lines was
evaluated.IC50 was more than 100 μg/ml against all
evaluated cell lines(112). Anchusa italica is one of the
thirteen plants contained in the Abnormal Savda Munziq of
Traditional Uighur formula (ASMq), which used for the
treatment and prevention of cancers. The effects of ethanol
extract of ASMq on cultured human hepatoma cells
(HepG2) was carried out to explore the mechanism of its
putative anticancer properties by using many experimental
methods including the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5
diphenyltetrazolium (MTT) bromide, neutral red and
lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage, the incorporation of
3
[H]-leucine and 3[H]-nucleosides into protein, DNA and
RNA, and quantifying the formation of malondialdehyde
thiobarbituric acid (MDA). ASMq ethanol extract
significantly inhibited the growth of HepG2 and cell
viability, increased the leakage of LDH after 48 hours or
72 hours treatment in a concentration and time dependent
manner (P <.05). Cellular protein, DNA and RNA
synthesis were inhibited in a concentration and time
dependent manner (P <.05). No significant MDA release in
culture medium and no lipid peroxidation in cells were
observed. Accordind to the results, the cytotoxic effects of
ASMq ethanol extract might be related to inhibition of
cancer cell growth, alteration of cell membrane integrity
and inhibition of cellular protein, DNA and RNA synthesis
(113)." (Al-Snafi, A. Esmail.)
Antioxidant/Antibacterial
"We first determined the content of phenolic compounds and flavonoids
using Folin—Ciocalteu reagents and aluminum chloride (AICl3). The antioxidant activity was de-
termined using three methods: reducing power (FRAP), 2.2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH),
total antioxidant capacity (TAC). The antimicrobial activity was investigated against four strains of
Escherichia coli, two strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, and one
fungal strain of Candida albicans. The results showed that the root extract was rich in polyphenols
(43.29 mg GAE/g extract), while the leave extract was rich in flavonoids (28.88 mg QE /g extract).
The FRAP assay showed a strong iron reduction capacity for the root extract (IC50 of 0.11 pg/mL) in
comparison to ascorbic acid (IC50 of 0.121 pg/mL). The DPPH test determined an IC50 of 0.11 ng/mL
for the root extract and an IC50 of 0.14 pg/mL for the leaf extract. These values are low compared
to those for ascorbic acid (IC50 of 0.16 pg/mL) and BHT (IC50 0.20 ng/mL). The TAC values of
the leaf and root extracts were 0.51 and 0.98 mg AAE/g extract, respectively. In vitro, the extract
showed inhibitory activity against all strains studied, with diameters of zones of inhibition in the
range of 11.00-16.00 mm for the root extract and 11.67-14.33 mm for the leaf extract. The minimum
inhibitory concentration was recorded for the leaf extract against E. coli (ATB:57), corresponding to
5 mg/mL. Overall, this research indicates that the extracts of Anchusa italica Retz roots and leaves
exert significant antioxidant and antibacterial activities, probably because of the high content of
flavonoids and polyphenols." (Khomsi, M. E., et al.)
"As per the results of the diameter of inhibition zones
(DIZ) presented in Table 4, the extracts showed moderate antibacterial activity against all
eight strains studied (E. coli (ATB: 97) BGM, E. coli (ATB: 57) B6N, E. coli (ESBL), E. coli sensible, K. pneumoniae (ESBL-KP), K. pneumoniae
sensible, coagulase-negative staphylococci and
C. albicans), with diameters of inhibition zones ranging from 11 to 16 mm. The largest zones
of inhibition were found for coagulase-negative staphylococci (16.00 £ 1.00 mm) in the presence of the root extract and the
leaf extract (13.67 =1.15 mm), followed by E. coli (ATB: 97)
BGM, with an inhibition zone for the root extract of 15.00 & 1.00 mm and for the leaf extract
of 12.33 £ 1.15 mm, and then by E. coli sensible, with inhibition diameters for the root and
leaf extracts of 13.67 £ 0.58 mm and 14.33 + 0.58 mm, respectively, followed by C. albicans,
E. coli (ATB: 57) B6N, E. coli (ESBL), K. pneumoniae, and lastly K. pneumoniae (ESBL-KP)." (Khomsi, M. E., et al.)
Wound Healing
"Anchusa azurea one of the medicinal plants that has been traditionally used for treat burn wounds. However,
the traditional claim that A.azurea can hasten burn wound healing has not been supported by scientific studies.
This experiment used a male Wistar rats model to investigate the activity of A. azurea aerial parts methanolic
extract in burn wound healing. To determine their ability to help in healing burn wounds in rat models, the
active components of the aerial parts of A. azurea were extracted with 80% methanol, then, 1% and 10%
ointments were prepared from the extract, and applied topically." (Al-Qaisi, Talal, et al.)
"The LCMS chromatography of
A. azurea plant extract showed different active ingredients, including phenolic compounds,
flavonoids, fatty acids, and others. The plant extract's investigated as anti-inflammatory,
antioxidant, and histological effects on the burn wound healing process." (Al-Qaisi, Talal, et al.)
"The results showed
a significant (p-value < 0.025) rate of burn wound healing with 78.6% and 84.8% contraction,
respectively using 1% and 10% (w/w) extract ointments after 12 days. These results were
corroborated by histological observations such as collagen deposition, re-epithelialization,
and repair of the remaining skin tissues without any sign of cutaneous toxicity. The plant
extract showed significant (p-value < 0.025) antioxidant effect at the highest tested dose
of 500 µg/mL, scavenging 89.78% of the DPPH with an IC50 of 213.6 µg/mL. These results
confirmed by histological changes observations of collagen deposition, re-epithelialization,
and reformation of remaining skin tissues without any signs of dermal toxicity. The plant
extract exhibited significant (p-value < 0.025) level of antioxidant agents, by scavenging
89.78% of the DPPH at 500 µg/mL with IC50 of 213.6 µg/mL. Additionally, all pro-inflammatory
cytokines examined, including IL-6 and IL-10, the results exhibited reduction in IL-6 level
and increase IL-10 level. The aerial extract of the A. azurea plant revealed a wealth of
several significant active ingredients, including phenolic compounds, flavonoids, fatty
acids, and others, suggesting the potential for anti-inflammatory, burn wound-healing,
and antioxidant medications. These findings can open an avenue to find new therapeutics
for burn wounds healing, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties." (Al-Qaisi, Talal, et al.)
"Previous research indicates that the plant has several bioactive compounds with antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory qualities[15]. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are created during the healing process of
a wound. These molecules inhibited tissue recovery by causing oxidative stress. Antioxidants are essential
for scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and shielding cells from oxidative damage [16]. Antioxidant-rich
plant extracts have been demonstrated to speed up tissue regeneration and lower oxidative stress, which
promotes wound healing [17]. Long-term inflammation can result in hypertrophic scarring and hinder
healing [18]. Thus, encouraging efficient wound healing requires reducing inflammation, plant
extracts with anti-inflammatory qualities are utilized to control the immune system and
reduce wound inflammation [19]." (Al-Qaisi, Talal, et al.)
"An acute toxicity investigation indicated that the 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000
mg/kg oral administration doses of the A. azurea methanol
extract utilized were safe and non-toxic." (Al-Qaisi, Talal, et al.)
Phytochemicals
"Chemical studies showed that A. azurea contains mainly
triterpenes and polyphenols." (Hussain et al., 2019)
"A. italica belongs to the Boraginaceae family [15].
Triterpenes, alkaloids, lignans, megasigmans, and
flavonoids have been isolated from the plant
[15]." (Shahsavari & Derikvand,2022)
"The other compound[s] isolated from A. italica
include anchusoside-3, viscoside A, 21β- (β-D
glucopyranosyloxy) -2α, 3α-dihydroxyolean-12
28-oic acid-, accigenin, niga-ichigoside F1,
glucosyl pinfaensate, daidzein, tormentic acid,
and pinfaenoic acid [16-22]. Research shows that
this plant has anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and
antiviral effects." (Shahsavari & Derikvand,2022)
Seeds
"The seeds of A. azurea are rich sources of many unsaturated fatty acids like;
linoleic acid, oleic acid, γ- linolenic acid, eicosenoic acid. Also, the plant is
containing some other saturated fatty acids like; palmitic acid. The seeds of
A. azurea contained 21 % (v/w) oil. The gamma-linolenic acid represented
13% (v/v) of the oil and 2.7% (v/w) of the seeds.[19]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Table 10. Examples of plant species rich in y-linolenic acid (GLA)
Anchusa azurea - Oil content of seed 21(%) / GLA content in oil 11–13(%) [Gunstone LFFN]
"Anchusa azurea Mill (A. italica Retz.)
Family: Boraginaceae
"Seed
Mass of 1,000, g: 31.25 [1]
Moisture, %: 7.26 [1]" [LLCEOPS]
"Peshawa et al.[23] characterized eleven fatty acids in triglycerides isolated
from the seeds of traditional Kurdish medicinal plant A. azurea by GC
MS analysis, the main components were oleic, palmitic, palmitoleic,
11-eicosenoic, erucic and two ω-9 acids. Totally, eleven fatty acids were
analyzed from the seeds of the studied plant using GC-MS analysis. The
results showed that the plant seeds contain high percentage of elaidic acid
(46.42%), palmitic acid (18.9%), linoleic acid (14.59%) and the other main
fatty acids (FAs) are erucic acid (6.33%), 11-eicosenoic acid (5.02%), stearic
acid (4.55%) and 6,9,12-octadecatrienoic acid (2.43%). The percentage
of minor FAs is (0.78%) nervonic acid, (0.46%) myristic acid, (0.38%)
palmitoleic acid and (0.14%) for 11-hexadecenoic acid. Major chemical
constituents of A. azurea shown in Figure 2." (Hussain et al., 2019)
Aerial Parts
"Four new triterpene glycosides (saponins), named oleanazuroside 1 (1),
oleanazuroside 2 (2), ursolazuroside 1 (3) and ursolazuroside 2 (4), together
with the seven known compounds named (2α, 3β, 4α, 19α)- 2,3 19,23 -tetrahydroxyurs- 1 2-en-28-oic acid p-glucopyranosyl ester (=quercilicoside
A; 5), kaempferol 3-0-glucopyranoside) (=astragalin; 6), quercetin 3-(fi
glucopyranoside) (=isoquercitrin; 7), quercetin 3-(a-rhamnopyranosyl-(1
6)-P-glucopyTanoside) (=rutin; 8), kaempferol (α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1
6)-p-glucopyranoside) (9), rosmarinic acid (10) and 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)
lactic acid (11), were isolated from the methanolic extract of the aerial
parts of A. azurea.[20]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Flowers
"The flowers
yield anthocyanins and the leaf, stem yield bornesitol.(4)" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Flower Essential Oils
"... A. italica contains 42 chemical
compounds including trans-caryophyllene (13.26%), allospathulenol
(11.27%), germacrene D (10.47%), bicyclogermacrene (9.77%), safranal
(7.62%), δ-cadinene (6.42%), and α-pinene (4.38%) are α-copaene (3.96%)
and β-myrcene (3.75%)." (Shahsavari & Derikvand,2022)
"After measurement of the wavelengths at 570 nm,
the antioxidant property of ... A. italica at 2.9 mmol Fe2+/L." (Shahsavari & Derikvand,2022)
Lipids
"The total lipid content of A. azurea leaves was 0.93 g / 100 g. It contained
16.59% saturated fatty acids, 3.15% monounsaturated fatty acids and 4.85%
polyunsaturated fatty acids. Oil contained the following compounds: capric
acid (0.07%), undecanoic acid (0.01%), lauric acid (0.07%), tridecanoic acid
(0.01%), myristic acid (0.35%), myristoleic acid (0.16%), pentadecanoic acid
(0.12%), palmitic acid (10.45%), palmitoleic acid (0.14%), heptadecanoic
acid (0.22%), stearic acid (1.67%), oleic acid (2.20%), linoleic acid (12.16%),
γ-linolenic acid (1.46%), α-linolenic acid (64.74%), arachidic acid (1.64%),
eicosenoic acid (0.17%), cis-8.11.14-eicostrienoic acid (1.69%), cis-11.14.17
eicosatrienoic acid, heneicosanoic acid (0.21%), behenic acid (1.25%),
eruicic acid (0.07 %), tricosanoic acid (0.02%), lignoceric acid (0.72%)
and nervonic acid (0.40%). However, Conforti et al. showed that A. azurea
yield linoleic acid 2.57 % and linolenic acid 5.02 %. It also contained
hydroalcoholic extracts 23.8 % and the total phenolics content (using
Folin– Ciocalteau method) was 85.5 chlorogenic acid equivalents (mg/g).[22]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Cultivation & Propagation
"Succeeds in most soils, preferring a sunny position[1, 111]. Prefers a fertile well-drained soil[111]. Tolerates heavy clay[200]. Requires a deep well-drained soil[187]. Established plants tolerate drought[187]. Plants are hardy to about -15°c[187]. The flowers are a good source of food for bees[1]. Many named forms have been selected for their ornamental value[187]. The plants tend to be short-lived perennials but they can be propagated by means of root cuttings[187]." [PFAF]
"Seed - sow spring in pots of sandy soil[200]. An overnight drop in temperature helps germination[133]. The seed usually germinates in 1 - 4 weeks at 21°c[133]. When large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out in the summer. Division in early spring[200]. Root cuttings in autumn or early winter. Late winter is best[200]." [PFAF]
"The plants
tend to be short-lived perennials but they can he propagated by means
of root cuttings.[16]" (Hussain et al., 2019)
Wildlife
"The flowers are a good source of food for bees.[15]
Many named forms been selected for their ornamental value." (Hussain et al., 2019)
Synonyms
A. italica. [E-flora]
Anchusa italica Retz. = Anchusa azurea var. azurea (PWO)
This biennial
member of the Boraginaceae is widespread in central Europe, growing in open
fields and waste places. The basal rosette of hairy leaves supports a central stalk
(20-120 cm) which bears terminal and axillary clusters of pink, red, or violet
tubular blossoms." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"Anchusa officinalis is a BIENNIAL/PERENNIAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 5 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from June to October, and the seeds ripen from July to October. The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Bees.
It is noted for attracting wildlife.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and prefers well-drained soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil." [PFAF]
General: "Biennial or perennial herb from a taproot, softly spreading-hairy; stems often several, 30-80 cm tall.[IFBC-E-flora]
Habitat/Range:
"Anchusa
officinalis is native to the Mediterranean region, but is now found in much of
Europe, such as France, Holland, Germany, Denmark, south Norway, and
south Sweden. It is also present in west Asia (Blarney and Grey-Wilson 1989)." [Bajaj MAPS 6]
"Dry roadsides and waste places in the lowland, steppe and lower montane zones; rare in SC BC and S Vancouver
Island; introduced from Europe.[IFBC-E-flora]
Status: Exotic.[E-flora]
Hazards
Greens given (T) rating in [Turner, Kuhnlein]. defined as "toxin reported in a look-alike species (not closely related) or in a part of the plant not
listed as edible; or toxin at relatively low levels" [Turner, Kuhnlein]
Food Use
"Leaves and young shoots - cooked[9, 115, 166]. Used like spinach[2, 183]." [PFAF]
"Anchusa officinalis Linn. Boragineae. ANCHU. BUGLOSS.
Europe. Johnson says, in the south of France and in some parts of
Germany, where it is common, the young leaves are eaten as a green
vegetable." [Sturtevant EPW]
"Flowers - cooked or used as a garnish[183]." [PFAF]
Dye: "The red dye obtained from the roots can be used to colour oils and fats[105]." [PFAF]
Other Use
Dye:"
A red dye is obtained from the roots[13]." [PFAF]
"Cheaper and safer alternatives did exist; for example, the dregs
of red wine (faex), the red dye extracted from the roots of alkanet
(anchusa), a type of borage, and the juice of the mulberry (morum)." [HTEH Wexler]
Lipstick: "Many different herbs were used by peasant
girls and women to produce »lipstick« and colour cheeks. Lipsticks were made
from the roots of Anchusa officinalis,
Lithospermum arvense, Onosma echioides,
Echium rubrum and Echium vulgare." [Svanberg EE]
Medicinal Use
"Anchusa. Anchusa officinalis, L. Bugloss. Ox-tongue. (Fam. Boraginaceae.)—The
root, leaves, and flowers of this European biennial plant were at one time recognized
by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, but probably are practically devoid of medicinal
properties. In France the Anchusa italica, which is there known as buglosse, is
substituted for A. officinalis and is still in popular use as a diaphoretic and diuretic."
[Remington USD20]
"All parts of the plant are demulcent and expectorant[9]. They are used externally to treat cuts,
bruises and phlebitis and internally to treat coughs and bronchial catarrh[9]. A homeopathic
remedy is made from the plant[9]. It is used in the
treatment of stomach and duodenal ulcers[9]." [PFAF]
Anchusa officinalis L. (Boraginaceae) - Aerial parts/Flowers - Tea for pulmonary ailments (Hypericum, Pulmonaria, Symphytum)
(Saric-kundalic et al., 2010)
Folk Use
In habit, and in medicinal folklore uses, it has many features
in common with Lycopsis, Symphytum and Lithospermum. The medicinal effects
are probably due, at least in part, to the content of caffeic acid esters in these
plants (Auf'Mkolk et al. 1985 a)." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
(Anchusa officinalis) “The gentlewomen of Francedo paint their
faces with these roots. as it is said” (Gerard). Anchusa is from the Greek meaning to
paint or dye (another species is Dyer’s Bugloss (A tinctoria). Alkanet seems to be one
of the most ancient of face cosmetics (Clair). This use of the rootsfor making rouge
led to the plant becoming known as a
symbol of falsehood (Folkard)." [MPFT]
Doctrine of Signatures
bugloss Anchusa officinalis L. (perhaps) Boraginaceae seeds shaped like a viper's head - venomous bites [Bennett]
Phytochemicals
"Anchusa officinalis belongs to the Boraginaceae family.
Genus Anchusa (Boraginaceae) is one of the major genera
of flowering plants with major diversity center in the southern
part of the Balkan Peninsula (Selvi and Bigazzi 2003). The
plant is native to the Europe, but absent from the extreme
North, much of the West and parts of theMediterraneanregion
(Jakovljevic et al. 2016). Among the people it is known as
blush, duck nest and healing common bugloss. Numerous
studies of various species of the Anchusa genus indicated their
wide application in folk medicine (Khare 2007; Amin 2005).
The presence of numerous phytochemicals, alkaloids, tannins,
oils, polyphenols, pyrrolizine alkaloids, triterpenoids, in the
Anchusa genus was confirmed in research by Al-Snafi
(2014). HPLC analysis of polyphenol components confirmed
the presence of rosmarinic, benzoic acid, rutin and catechin in
a methanolic extract of the Anchusa undulata subsp. hybdrida
(Zengin et al. 2015)." (Boskovic, Ivana, et al.)
"HPLC analysis of examined extracts of the A.officinalis
plant showed the presence of the following components: p
hydroxybenzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic
acid, sinapinic acid, rutin, lutein glycoside,apigeninglycoside,
rosmarinicacid, quercetin, lutein, naringenin and kaempferol,
whereas the most dominant were: rosmarinic, chlorogenic acid,
naringenin, lutein-glycoside and rutin (Table 3). Petroleum ether
extract of A.officinalis had a maximum value(Σ335.185mg/g)
of the identified compounds: rosmarinic acid(244.300mg/g),
chlorogenic acid(30.925mg/g), naringenin(14.018mg/g),
lutein-glycoside(13.038mg/g) and arutin(11.116mg/g)." (Boskovic, Ivana, et al.)
"The results of total phenolic content of the tested plant extracts
of A. officinalis using Folin-Ciocalteu’s method and expressed
as gallic acid equivalents are presented in Table 1. The obtain
ed values were in the range from 87.11±0.54to104.03±0.63
mgGA/g. The phenolic contents in the ethanol (104.03±0.63
mgGA/g) and cloroform extracts (100.26±0.40 GA/g) were
higher than in the other three tested extracts. The content of
flavonoids was determined using spectrophotometric method
with AlCl3 and expressed in terms of rutin equivalents. The
ethanol extract had the highest value of flavonoids (30.26 ±
0.40 mgRU/g), followed by acetone extract (29.91±0.44
mgRU/g). The results are shown in Table 1. The highest con
tent of tannins achieved in the chloroform (74.65± 0.57 mg
GA/g) and acetone extract (74.53±0.46 mg GA/g)." (Boskovic, Ivana, et al.)
"In the summary, this study indicate that Anchusa officinalis
have certain high content of phenolic components of various
extracts and the evaluation of its antimicrobial, antioxidant
and cytotoxic potential, which showed that the extracts of
A. officinalis are enriched with pharmacologically active com
pounds. This is the first report of citotoxic activity of extract
A. officinalis from Balkan region on tumor celllines and there
fore could have a medical significance in the future." (Boskovic, Ivana, et al.)
(Boskovic, Ivana, et al.)
*Figure Notes: "Commercial antibiotics amracin and ketoconasole were used as a positive control." (Boskovic, Ivana, et al.)
Tannins
"Abstract
The investigation of tannins in Anchusa officinalis L. was conducted. As a result, qualitative and
quantitative tannins content in the herba and the roots were determined. For this purpose we have used
high-performance liquid chromatography, titrimetric and spectrophotometric methods. We have revealed
gallocatechin, epigallocatechin, catechin, epicatechin, epicatechingallate, catechingallate and gallic acid,
and determined their quantitative content by the high-performance liquid chromatography. The total
tannins content established using titrimetric method is between 3,00 - 3,53%, spectrophotometric method - 1,13 - 1,74%, high-performance liquid chromatography - 4,22 - 4,29%. The highest content is recorded
for epigallocatechin (51, 79 % and 69, 56 % relative to the total tannins content in Anchusa officinalis L.
herba and roots respectively)." (Svirska, S., and A. Grytsyk.)
Seed Oil
"Total seed oil (25,80 to 26,10%) and fatty
acid compositions of both informal groups of A.
officinalis were studied. All analytical results
and the ratios of the fatty acids were
documented in Table 1. Major fatty acids were
linoleic (C18:2n6), oleic (C18:1n9), α-linolenic
(C18:3n3), γ-linolenic (C18:3n6), palmitic
(C16:0) and stearidonic acid (C18:4n3)
respectively. The lower levels were observed in
the other fatty acids including stearic (C18:0),
eicosenoic (C20:1n9), erucic acids (C22:1n9).
The highest quantities were detected for linoleic
(24,4 to 25,8%) and oleic acids (23,2 to 25,5%).
α-linolenic acid was also at the high
concentrations (14,5 to 15,1%). γ-linolenic acid
(C18:3n6) as an unusual fatty acid in plants was
determined at considerably high concentrations
(12,5 to 12,6%) in both groups.
Saturated fatty acids including palmitic and
stearic acid were observed at the lower levels
between the groups generally (1,9 to 8,9%).
Significantly different values for fatty acid
profiles between the groups was observed
(p<0,05). Saturated, unsaturated fatty acids and
some of their calculated ratios were also
different significantly (p<0,05). Total ratios of
poly-unsaturated (56,27 to 56,41%), mono
unsaturated (26,47 to 31,38%) and saturated
fatty acids (10,12 to 11,95%) were detected
parallely at different range in both groups.
Total percents of unsaturated fatty acids
were between 82,88 to 87,65%. In general, the
concentration range of the whole fatty acid
profile in Group a of A. officinalis was
relatively larger than that of Group b. Relatively
higher values in Group b for palmitic, stearic,
erucic, α-linolenic and stearidonic acid and in
Group a for oleic, linoleic and γ-linolenic acid
were observed (Fig.1). But, parallel results were
obtained for all examined fatty acids in terms of
general aspect of the profiles in both groups.
The proportions of linoleic to α-linolenic acids,
mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty
acids to saturated fatty acids were relatively
higher in Group a. Especially, total ratio of
unsaturated fatty acids to saturated ones in
Group a showed remarkably higher value.
Relatively higher proportions for α-: γ-linolenic
acid and poly-: mono-unsaturated fatty acids
were examined in Group b. Two groups were
segregated based on six different proportions of
fatty acids (Fig.2). Valuable concentrations for
essential poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)
including linoleic, α-linolenic, γ-linolenic and
stearidonic acid as special dietetics and
nutraceuticals were detected in both groups of
A. officinalis suggesting alternative source
potential for these fatty acids used in
biomedical, cosmetic and food sectors." (Özcan, Tamer. 2008)
"Some variations in seed oil contents and
the concentrations of fatty acids were reported
from the specimens collected from different
localities and climatic conditions of each year,
producing decreasing levels of seed oils
correlated with dry seasons (Angelini et al.
1997). On the other hand, total seed oil contents
in ripened stage between groups examined here
were observed at very similar quantities though
collected
from very different localities,
implying possibly its consistent characteristic
feature at spesific level. But, relatively lower
quantities in total seed oil of A. officinalis
(21.6%) compared to our study (25,8 to 26,1%)
were obtained likely derived from different
growing conditions and theripening stages
(Cisowski et al. 2001). However, fatty acid
compositions and its some proportions may be
more valuable and additional data for the
discrimination of two groups of A. officinalis.
Our results also provide information for the
source potential of the studied fatty acids.
Considerable high level of mono- and poly
unsaturated fatty acids in addition to total oil
contents in A. officinalis suggest the utility of
this species as alternative industrial crop.
Remarkable concentrations of α-linolenic, γ
linolenic and stearidonic acid as unusual fatty
acids that are important for biomedical
applications were obtained in both groups. This
species as an alternative wild resources for
unsaturated fatty acids has very large
distributional areas in Anatolia. Selected
genotypes with high product quality may be
cultivated as industrial crops in its natural
habitats that is not suitable for conventional
agriculture.
Fatty acid profiles of seed oils, total ratios of
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and its
relative
percentages
as
an
additional
chemometric data are seem to be useful for the
characterization and delineations at infraspesific
levels of A. officinalis." (Özcan, Tamer. 2008)
(Özcan, Tamer. 2008)
Prephenate Aminotransferase - Google Summary
Anchusa species, such as Bugloss, act as specialized chemical factories that use a rare "alternative route"
to build essential ingredients like fragrances and antioxidants. While most organisms follow a standard
biological map to create these compounds, Anchusa utilizes a specific process that is remarkably precise
and heat-resistant. For anyone looking to use these plants in everyday products, this is a major
advantage: the plant’s natural "worker" molecules (enzymes) are tough enough to handle industrial
processing and specific enough to create high-quality extracts with very few impurities.
Even though the exact genetic blueprint for this process hasn't been fully mapped yet, the
plant's unique ability to remain stable under high temperatures makes it a prime candidate
for sustainable wellness and cosmetic innovations.
Beyond its rare pathway, Anchusa stands out because its biological "on-switch" stays active even when
production levels are high, allowing it to churn out antioxidants and fragrances in much larger quantities
than typical plants. These internal "worker" molecules are also remarkably heat-tolerant, which is a
massive win for industrial manufacturing where high temperatures usually destroy delicate natural
compounds. This efficiency makes the plant a direct highway for producing high-value ingredients
like rosmarinic acid—a staple in natural skincare and food preservation—with incredible purity.
For anyone looking to develop sustainable everyday products, Anchusa offers a cleaner,
high-output alternative to lab-made chemicals, delivering potent results without the
unwanted byproducts often found in synthetic manufacturing.
Supporting Data
"In the classical pathway to phenylalanine and tyrosine the branch point intermediate
is prephenate (Figure 4). Prephenate is first converted to phenylpyruvate (PPY) or p-
hydroxyphenylpyruvate (HPP) by prephenate dehydratase or prephenate
dehydrogenase (oxidative decarboxylation). These aromatic keto-acids are substrates
for specific aminotransferases leading to phenylalanine and tyrosine.
In an alternative pathway first the transamination of prephenate takes place and
the non-aromatic arogenate (the branch point intermediate) formed is subsequently
dehydrated or dehydrogenated giving rise to phenylalanine and tyrosine, respectively
(Siehl et al., 1985). The two possible routes differ only in the sequence of the
transamination and aromatization reactions.
Because the prephenate dehydratase activity has never been found in higher plants
(Bonner and Jensen, 1987) and the prephenate dehydrogenase was reported to occur
only in mung bean (Rubin and Jensen, 1979), the only possibility for biosynthesis of
phenylalanine and tyrosine is via the alternative pathway. Prephenate aminotransferase
and arogenate dehydrogenase were first described in the mung bean (Rubin and Jensen,
1979). Prephenate aminotransferase has been purified to near homogeneity from cell
cultures of Nicotiana silvestris (Bonner and Jensen, 1985, 1987) and Anchusa officinalis
(De-Eknamkul and Ellis, 1988). Prephenate aminotransferases studied so far have an
unusually high substrate specificity and are highly stable to thermal treatments.
Prephenate aminotransferase is located in plastid compartments (Siehl et al., 1986;
Jensen, 1986). For this enzyme neither a cDNA nor a
gene have been isolated so far." [Bernath Papaver]
Rosmarinic acid
"Rosmarinic acid is found spontaneously at high levels in
cultures of Anchusa, Coleus, Rosmarinus or Salvia." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"To determine whether this spontaneous production
trait might have commercial potential, and to better understand the molecular
basis of selective expression of a specific metabolic sequence in cultured cell
systems, a detailed study of rosmarinic acid synthesis and accumulation was
undertaken. Some of this work was carried out with cell lines of Coleus blumei,
but most was concentrated on cultures of Anchusa ojjicinalis L." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
AMF Influenced Biochemical Pathways
"Interestingly,
upregulation of methylated compounds was underlined in AMF
colonized plants, suggesting that these fungi have the potential
to alter the plant biosynthetic pathways and to induce the
production of different compounds." (Cartabia et al., 2021)
"It will be of great interest to
understand the molecular mechanisms behind the accumulation
of specific compounds in the presence of AMF and how this could
potentially be translated in increasing the production of specific
compounds, which were valuable for human purposes." (Cartabia et al., 2021)
"Anchusa officinalis L. Cynoglossine ; B . HC1, crystalline. Paralyses
peripheral nerve terminations. Consolidine ; gluco-alkaloid ; hydrolysed
to glucose and consolicine (also present as such). Paralyses the central
nervous system. The same alkaloids are also present in Echium vulgare L.
and Cynoglossum officinale L. (Greiner, Arch. Pharm., 1900, 238, 505)." [TPA Henry]
"Rosmarinic acid was ... named ... after the plant it was isolated from,
Rosmarinus officinalis. Before elucidation of its chemical structure, rosmarinic acid and
similar compounds were collectively known as
‘‘Labiatengerbstoffe,’’ which is a type of tannin that is produced by many
species belonging to the family Lamiaceae. .... RosA is produced in suspension cultures of Anchusa officinalis
(Boraginaceae) and Coleus blumei
(Lamiaceae), which results in accumulation of higher
amounts of rosmarinic acid than are found in the plant itself." [Aggarwal MTTUS]
"Anchusa officinalis is recognized for its therapeutic properties, which are attributed to
the production of different metabolites. This plant interacts with various microorganisms,
including the root symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Whether these fungi
play a role in the metabolism of A. officinalis is unknown." (Cartabia et al., 2021)
"In the present study,
two independent experiments, associating A. officinalis with the AMF Rhizophagus
irregularis..., were conducted in a semi-hydroponic (S-H) cultivation
system. The experiments were intended to investigate the primary and secondary
metabolites (PMs and SMs, respectively) content of shoots, roots, and exudates
of mycorrhized (M) and non-mycorrhized (NM) plants grown 9 (Exp. 1) or 30
(Exp. 2) days in the S-H cultivation system." (Cartabia et al., 2021)
"Differences in the PMs and SMs
were evaluated.... Differences in metabolite production were shown in Exp. 1. Volcano-plots
analysis revealed a strong upregulation of 10 PMs and 23 SMs. Conversely,
in Exp. 2, no significant differences in PMs and SMs were found in shoots
or roots between M and NM plants whereas the coumarin scoparone and the
furanocoumarin byakangelicin, accumulated in the exudates of the M plants. In
Exp. 1, we noticed an enhanced production of PMs, including organic acids and
amino acids, with the potential to act as precursors of other amino acids and as
building blocks for the production of macromolecules. Similarly, SMs production was
significantly affected in Exp 1." (Cartabia et al., 2021)
"In particular, the phenolic compounds derived from
the phenylpropanoid pathway. Fifteen di-, tri-, and tetra-meric C6-C3 derivatives of
caffeic acid were induced mainly in the roots of M plants, while four oleanane-types
saponins were accumulated in the shoots of M plants. Two new salvianolic acid B
derivatives and one new rosmarinic acid derivative, all presenting a common substitution
pattern..., were detected in the
roots of M plants." (Cartabia et al., 2021)
"In conclusion, the AMF colonization influenced specific plant’s
biosynthetic pathways resulting in a qualitative and quantitative
modification of different metabolites production. Colonization
by the AMF was followed by an enhanced production of PMs,
including organic acids (involved in the energy pathways of
the eukaryotic cell) and key amino acids, with the potential
to act as precursors of other amino acids and as building
blocks for the production of macromolecules. Furthermore, SMs
production was significantly affected, especially the phenolic
compounds and the oleanane-types glycosidic derived from
the phenylpropanoid and mevalonate pathways, respectively. In
total, 16 C6-C3 caffeic acid derivatives were induced mainly in
the roots of M [mycorrhized] plants while 4 oleanane-types saponins were
accumulated in the shoot parts. Besides the well-documented C6
C3 phenolics herein we noticed, for the first time, the production
of two new derivatives of SA and one new derivative of RA,
all presenting a common substitution pattern (methylation
and hydroxylation) in the roots of M plants." (Cartabia et al., 2021)
Cultivation
"Succeeds in most soils, preferring a sunny position(1). Prefers a fertile well-drained soil(111). The
flowers are a rich source of nectar and are very attractive to bees(1). The dry leaves emit a rich musky fragrance, rather like wild strawberry leaves drying."
[PFAF]
"CATEGORY: Dyeing
ORIGIN: Southern Europe
TYPE: Biennial or perennial, hardy to zone 5
HEIGHT: 1 to 2 feet
OTHER NAMES AND VARIETIES: Orchanet. Common bugloss (Anchusa officinalis) is a closely related
garden perennial.
HOW TO GROW: Grow from seed or transplants in full sun and moderate soil. Attracts pollinators.
SEASON: Summer
SAFETY: Not safe for internal consumption since it can be toxic to the liver." [NAH Orr]
Synonyms
Anchusa procera Besser ex Link[E-flora]
Anchusa angustifolia L. - "This name is a synonym of Anchusa officinalis subsp. officinalis"
References
[E-flora] Anchusa officinalis, https://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Anchusa%20officinalis&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed July 30, 2020
[PFAF] Anchusa officinalis, https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Anchusa+officinalis, Accessed July 30, 2020
"Anchusa strigosa (strigose bugloss or prickly alkanet) is a widespread weed, with a rosette of
leaves at its base and an inflorescence stem reaching one meter or more (1). This plant
belongs to the Boraginaceae family, and it is native to Greece, Syria, Turkey, Lebanon,
Israel, Jordan, and Iran." (Yarmolinsky, Ludmila, et al.)
"Anchusa strigosa Banks et Sol. (Boraginaceae) is a
perennial herb that is very common and widely
distributed in Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian biotopes
in Jordan(1)." (Abbas et al.,2009)
"The native range of this species is E. Medit. to Iran. It is a biennial or
perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome." (PWO)
Hazards
Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids
"This study confirms the presence of alkaloids in A.
strigosa roots obtained from Jordan. These findings agree
with the results of Siciliano et al.(14) and Braca et al.(15)
who purified several pyrrolizidine alkaloids from A.
strigosa. Alkaloid content was highest in leaves and
lowest in roots according to Siciliano et al.(14). The
presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids even at low
concentrations in some medicinal plants may limit their
use in folk medicine because of their toxicity(14). Thus,
further studies investigating the toxicity of A. strigosa in
vivo and in vitro are needed." (Abbas et al.,2009)
Medicinal Use
"Although many publications are devoted to the plants of this region, to the best of our knowledge, A.
strigosa medicinal properties have not been reported. In general, some studies demonstrated
medicinal properties of A. strigosa from other regions including anti-ulcer (11), pro-wound
healing (WH) (12) and antioxidant activities (13,14). Yet, it is still unknown which compounds
are responsible for their therapeutic effects." (Yarmolinsky, Ludmila, et al.)
"Anchusa strigosa is a plant widely distributed
in the Mediterranean region. It is used in local folk medicine as a diuretic,
analgesic sedative, sudorific remedies and for treatment of stomach ulcers and
externally for skin diseases113 114." [Elsevier ASOL]
"It is used locally and in neighboring
countries as antiulcer(2), for wound healing(3), as a tonic
and tranquilizer(4), and as a diuretic and for abdominal
pain(5)." (Abbas et al.,2009)
"Abuereish(6) showed that the aqueous root extract
of A. strigosa inhibited pepsin activity in vitro. Disi et
al.(2) studied the antiulcer activity of the aqueous root
extract of A. strigosa in rats after inducing peptic ulcers
for them using absolute ethanol." (Abbas et al.,2009)
Phytochemicals
(Yarmolinsky, Ludmila, et al.)
Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids
"The presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloid was confirmed in Anchusa strigosa (Table 1) and its
presence is also mentioned in the literature [29], but to the best of our knowledge,
the rest of the identified compounds (Table 1) were not reported to be present in the
investigated weed. We showed that the crude extract was not toxic at concentrations
below 900 µg/mL for HDF cells. Its concentration of 50 µg/mL was sufficient
for effective pro-wound healing activity (Figure 1), while each identified
compound on its own is not active. We succeeded in finding some effective
combinations of compounds (Figure 1), proving that the extract has a
pro-wound healing activity because of the synergistic interactions
between its components. It is interesting that the absence of the
desired activity in individual identified compounds of plant extracts
is mentioned in the literature [10,30,31]. Further research to identify
other compounds of the extract is necessary."
(Yarmolinsky, Ludmila, et al.)
"...six pyrrolizidine alkaloids were detected in Anchusa strigosa
Banks and Sol111" [Elsevier ASOL]
"Previously, we reported the results of a phytochemical study on
A. strigosa roots in which we isolated a number of
PAs esters (Braca et al., 2003). A. strigosa, a plant widely
distributed in the Mediterranean region (Feinbrun
Dothan, 1978), is used in local folk medicine. The root
decoction is used as a diuretic, analgesic, and for treat
ment of stomach ulcers (Said et al., 2002), the flower
decoction is used for analgesic, sedative, sudorific, and
diuretic remedies (Al-Khalil, 1995), and finally the leaf
cataplasm is used as an anti-inflammatory remedy or
is applied externally for skin diseases and wounds (Al
Douri, 2000)." (Siciliano, Tiziana, et al.)
"The phytochemical study of A. strigosa leaves led to
the isolation of six PAs: 1–3 and 6 were previous isolated
in aphytochemicalinvestigation of the plant roots (Braca
et al., 2003), while 7 and 8 were new natural compounds
(see Fig. 1). The spectral data of compounds 1–3 and 6
are identical to those reported in our previous study
(Braca et al., 2003)." (Siciliano, Tiziana, et al.)
"The
profile LC–SIM–MS of PAs from all extracts did not
show significant qualitative differences, except for the
absence of peak I (compound 7) in the roots, and the
presence of peak F in the flowers. From a quantitative
point of view the differences are more substantial (Table
3). The quantitative analysis showed that the organs richest in PAs
are the leaves, followed by flowers, while
the PAs content of the roots is tenfold lower than the
other organs. The N-oxide derivatives are the most
abundant in all organs. The main differences between
leaves and flowers were due to the major amount in
compounds 6 and 8." (Siciliano, Tiziana, et al.)
"All PAs isolated from the A. strigosa leaves (1–2 and
4–8) were subjected to free choice feeding assays using
the generalist lepidopteran larva of S. exigua and specialist
lepidopteran larva of P. brassicae. Compounds 4
and 5 were previously isolated from the roots of A.
strigosa collected in a different year and region of Jor-
dan (Braca et al., 2003). Out of all choice experiments
conducted P. brassicae selected the control over the
PA-lined disk in 13 out of 21 tests (v2=1.19, Df=1,
NS). S. exigua preferred the control disk over the
PA-lined disk in 20 out of 27 tests (v2=6.25, Df=1,
p<0.01) (see Table 4).These results demonstrate the
overall antifeedant activity of the PAs against S. exi
gua. When individual PAs were tested at higher con
centrations, PAs 1 and 2 reduced feeding by P.
brassicae by 52% and 68% compared to the control.
Feeding of S. exigua was significantly reduced by
76%, 61%, and 54% for the higher concentrations of
PAs 5, 1, and 2, respectively. From Table 4, it is clear
that the antifeedant effect is concentration dependent.
Significant feeding effects are only found at higher
PA concentrations, although such effects are less pronounced
for P. brassicae. The highest PA concentra
tion tested is comparable to concentration found in
theplant.PAs 4,6,and 8, lacking the 1,2-double bond,
showed no deterrent activity, which is in line with the
observation that the 1,2-double bond is the structural
feature that is converted by cellular cytochrome
P450s into a toxic moiety (Hartmann et al., 1999).
The larvae of the cabbage specialist P.brassicae, which
never encounter PAs in their natural diet, were not
more deterred by PAs than the generalist S. exigua
(Table4).No synergistic effects were detected in a
feeding assay with S. exigua (data not shown)." (Siciliano, Tiziana, et al.)
"In our work, six PAs were detected,
characterized, and quantified in flowers, leaves, and
roots of A. strigosa. The plant seems to preferentially
allocate the PAs to aerial parts, which may results from
the important role of defence played by these secondary
metabolites. This role is confirmed by results of our antifeedant test.
" (Siciliano, Tiziana, et al.)
"Four compounds: Oleanolic acid (1), Beta-amyrin(2), Crataegolic acid (3) and Beta-sitosteryl
glucoside (4) were purified from petroleum ether fraction." (Abbas et al.,2009)
"Anchusa strigosa Banks et Sol (Boraginaceae), commonly known in Jordan as "Hemhem", is a herbaceous
perennial plant widely distributed in the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian regions [1]. In Jordan and
Palestine all parts of the plant are largely used in folk medicine for the treatment of several diseases.
The roots decoction is used as a diuretic, for abdominal pain, and for the treatment of stomach ulcers,
while the leaves cataplasm is applied to bone fractures and as a counter-irritant, and the leaves juice
is applied externally for skin diseases, arthritis, and wounds [2], [3]; the flower decoction is taken
as a herbal tea as an analgesic, sedative, sudorific, and diuretic remedy [4]. Previous pharmacological
work on aqueous extracts of A. strigosa roots reported gastric protection and healing of ethanol-induced
stomach ulcer, inhibition of pepsin activity, and a mild antimicrobial activity [5], [6], while no
chemical studies on the plant roots are available. As a part of our ongoing study of bioactive
compounds from Jordanian medicinal plants [7], we have studied A. strigosa roots." (Alessandra et al.,2003)
"Plants belonging to the family Boraginaceae have attracted attention for their content in pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
The chronic use of A. strigosa roots, containing a number of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, in Jordanian and
Palestinian traditional medicine should be not recommended to avoid hepatotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and fetotoxicity [19]." (Alessandra et al.,2003)
New Compounds
Retronecine 2S-hydroxy-2S-(1S-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylpentanoyl ester (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Retronecine N-oxide 2S-hydroxy-2S-(1S-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylpentanoyl ester (Alessandra et al.,2003) (flower,leaf and root) [Encyclopedia of TCM V4]
Retronecine N-oxide 2S-hydroxy-2S-(1R-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylpentanoyl ester (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Trachelanthamidine 2S-hydroxy-2S-(1S-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylpentanoyl ester (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Retronecine 2S-hydroxy-2S-(1S-hydroxyethyl)-2S-[(1'S-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylpentanoyl]-4-methylpentanoyl ester (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Supinidine N-oxide 2S-hydroxy-2S-(1S-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylpentanoyl ester (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Erythro-2-hydroxy-2-(1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methylpentanoic acid (Alessandra et al.,2003)
1,5-bis(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2-(3,3-dimethylallyl)benzene (Alessandra et al.,2003)
2α,3β,23,29-tetrahydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid 29-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Previously Identified (Known) Compounds
7,7'-bis-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-8,8'-dihydroxymethyltetrahydrofuran 4'-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Rosmarinic acid (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Caffeic acid (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Tormentic acid 28-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Euscaphic acid 28-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Euscaphic acid (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Allantoin (Alessandra et al.,2003)
Anchusa undulata
Food Use
"The radix
and aerial parts of the Anchusa undulata L. subsp.
hybrida (Ten.) Coutinho are consumed as
vegetables in Turkey. The young flowers of this
plant are eaten in soups and salads (18, 37)." (Taskin&Bitis.,2016)
Anchusa undulata L. - Basal leaves, stewed [Tardio,2006]
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International Journal of Food Properties, 2015;
18(7): 1491-1504.
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(Özcan, Tamer. 2008)
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