Carbohydrates

"Oligosaccharides consist of three to six monosaccharide units but are not frequently found in natural sources." ^{[Egbuna FFN]}

"Polysaccharides are polymer of monosaccharides that may be branched or unbranched. Starch and cellulose are two main examples of polysaccharides which are considered as slow releasing carbohydrates." ^{[Egbuna FFN]}

"Cellulose, the most common organic substrate in nature, is a linear polymer of 10,000–15,000 glucose units linked by ß-1,4 bonds and synthesized by plants and microorganisms (e.g., Glucon- acetobacter xylinum)." ^{[Benckiser BAPS]}

"Structural analogues of cellulose are homo- or heteropolymer hemicelluloses. They consist largely of ß-glucosidal (ß-1,4, ß-1,6, ß-1,3, etc.) linked D-xylose, D- mannose, L-arabinose, D- glucose, D-galactose, and D-glucuronic acid. Hemicelluloses with ß-1,4-D-glucose and D-mannose are glucomannans, ß-1,3-xylans are hemicelluloses with a xylose backbone and glucoronic acid- arabinose side chains esterified to aromatic (phenolic) acids. Hemicelluloses probably are the second most important carbohydrate source in nature." ^{[Benckiser BAPS]}

Degredation

"Anaerobic soil microorganisms degrade about 5–10% of the cellulose." ^{[Benckiser BAPS]}

Yeast

"Baker’s yeasts in general are capable of utilizing a variety of sugars present in flour: glucose, fructose, mannose, maltose, and sucrose. On the other hand, they do not utilize the pentoses xylose or arabinose, and consume raffinose only partially. In addition, S. exiguus is unable to take up maltose, a trait it may have developed during the development of its symbiotic relationship with the sourdough lactobacterium L. sanfrancisco." ^{[Kulp HDF]}

"Glucose and fructose are the first sugars to be used during fermentation. Sucrose is rapidly broken down to glucose and fructose by yeast enzymes already present outside the cell membrane, whereas maltose is not consumed until glucose is almost exhausted. Because amylase, a starch-degrading enzyme in flour, is constantly generating new glucose and maltose from flour starch, maltose levels may actually increase in the early stages of fermentation in a yeast-only dough." ^{[Kulp HDF]}

Alchol production

"There are four major classes of carbohydrate that are of general interest: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides." ^{[Jacques AT]}

"Disaccharides encompass sugars such as sucrose, which is an important transport carbohydrate in plants. Lactose, a disaccharide of glucose and galactose, is commonly called milk sugar." ^{[Jacques AT]} "A compound sugar that yields two monosaccharide units on hydrolysis. For example, lactose yields glucose and galactose, sucrose yields glucose and fructose, while maltose yields two glucose units." ^{[Jacques AT]}

"Oligosaccharides (Greek oligos, ‘few’) are made up of short chains of monosaccharide units joined together by covalent bonds. Most oligosaccharides in nature do not occur as free entities but are joined as side chains to polypeptides in glycoproteins and proteoglycans." ^{[Jacques AT]}

"Polysaccharides consist of long chains of hundreds or even thousands of linked monosaccharide units and, as will be discussed, exist in either linear or branched chain form. Knowledge of the terminology associated with the organizational structure of monosaccharides, such as D-glucose, is fundamental to an understanding of how polysaccharides differ and how polysaccharide-degrading enzymes, such as amylases, function." ^{[Jacques AT]}

"For fermentation purposes, polysaccharides must be subjected to hydrolysis to yield their component fermentable monosaccharides." ^{[Jacques AT]}

"Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the primary microorganism involved in the transformation of starch to ethyl alcohol, and corn starch remains the major raw material for industrial alcohol fermentation although potato starch also has limited use, particularly in Europe." ^{[Jacques AT]}

"The starting compound for alcohol synthesis by yeast is glucose (dextrose), which is a six- carbon sugar. Once fermented, each molecule of glucose yields two molecules of ethanol and carbon dioxide, respectively." ^{[Jacques AT]}

"The sequence of biosynthetic reactions by which yeast converts glucose to ethanol is termed the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (glycolytic) pathway (Figure 1). In this pathway, glucose is phosphorylated, then split into two phosphorylated 3-carbon derivatives, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxy- acetone phosphate. Both products are subsequently converted into pyruvic acid, which under anaerobic conditions yields ethanol and carbon dioxide. It is obvious from Figure 1 that the yeast, S. cerevisiae, is very well equipped to ferment glucose and fructose. This is why wine fermentations are technically very simple. Grape pressings deliver pure glucose and, of course, the required yeast are already present on the surface of the grapes. Likewise, molasses represents a readily assimilated feedstock for yeast since the predominant sugar in molasses is the disaccharide, sucrose. Yeast contains the enzyme sucrase, which cleaves sucrose into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose." ^{[Jacques AT]}

"Starch, however, cannot be fermented directly by S. cerevisiae, because the organism lacks the requisite starch-degrading or amylolytic enzymes to liberate glucose from this storage polysaccharide. Whether the starch is derived from corn, potatoes, sorghum (milo), barley or other cereal grains, the bonds between the glucose subunits in the starch chain must first be hydrolyzed to liberate free glucose molecules which yeast can utilize. Brewers achieve this by exploiting the endogenous starch-digesting enzymes produced by seeds when they germinate. Grains, such as barley, destined for fermentation, are first sprouted to initiate enzyme synthesis within the seeds. This process is termed malting. The malted grains are then steeped in hot water to allow the enzymes to convert starch to fermentable sugar. This mashing phase is then followed by a lautering or mash filtration stage to separate the solids from the glucose-rich liquid ‘wort’ to which yeast is added." ^{[Jacques AT]}

"Normal sorghum also known as non-waxy types contain 70–80 % amylopectin and 20–25 % amylose, while the waxy varieties contain 5 % or even lesser amylose." ^{[Lichtfouse SAR 16]}
"Wu et al. (2007) reported that low amylose content in sorghum grain may be associated with increased ethanol conversion efficiency. Waxy sorghums are more preferred in brewing industry, since they gelatinize more rapidly." ^{[Lichtfouse SAR 16]}

Starch (Amylose & Amylopectin)

"The term starch is used to describe a biopolymer system comprising predominantly two polysaccharides – amylose and amylopectin – which are made of glucose monomers." ^{[Eastaugh PC]} "Starch is made up of a mixture of two α-glucans built upon mainly α-(1,4) linkages." ^{[Rolland-Sabaté et al.,2012]}
"Amylose... occupies approximately 15–30% of starch, while amylopectin, the major component (70–85%), is a larger molecule with highly α-1,6 branched chains. Starch granules are thought to have alternative layers of crystalline and amorphous regions constructed by amylopectin and amylose." ^{[Srichuwong et al.,2005]} "A starch granule usually contains 20% to 30% amylose, 70% to 80% amy- lopectin, and in some cases up to 20% phytoglycogen." ^{[Heldt PB]}

"Starch is the most abundant storage reserve carbohydrate in plants. It is found in many different plant organs including seeds, fruits and many roots and tubers." ^{[Rolland-Sabaté et al.,2012]}
"Starch granules are the plant’s reserve glucose, and are concentrated in storage organs such as seeds, fruits, roots and tubers, but also occur in other plant parts such as starchy stems (Gott et al. 2006)." ^{[Outram SSP]}
"Botanical source greatly affected the composition and functional properties of starch. Our results reveal the influences of amylopectin unit-chain length distribution on thermal properties and α-amylase digestibility of different starches." ^{[Srichuwong et al.,2005]}

"Starch is insoluble but is subject to (reversible) swelling since it is permeable to water, and gelatinizes under heat and/or certain chemical conditions." ^{[Outram SSP]}

Detection

"Amylose, amylopectin, and phytoglycogen form blue- to violet-colored complexes with iodine molecules (Table 9.1). This makes it very easy to detect starch in a leaf by a simple iodine test." ^{[Heldt PB]} "amylose ... soluble in water; stains blue with iodine) and amylopectin ... insoluble in water; stains brown with iodine)." ^{[Hostettmann HCBPAM]}

Removal of Starch

"If the starting material contained starch, starch may be isolated as well and then has to be removed, for example, by repeated treatment with amylase. The used amylases must be free of other glycanase activities. For long and repeated amylase treatment, a contamination with microorganisms must be avoided. Another method to remove starch is its solubilization and extraction in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) (90%), for example, for 12 h at 25^oC. Finally, DMSO can be removed by washing steps with ethanol (70%). Besides starch, however, also some other polysaccharides (e.g., highly acetylated polysaccharides) can be soluble in DMSO at thus may be lost (Aspinall, 1982a; Selvendran, Stevens, and O’Neill, 1985; Fry, 1988)." ^{[Hostettmann HCBPAM]}

Conversion into simple sugars

Yam: "In Bolivia some producers sweeten up their tubers by putting them in a sunny place for up to 2 weeks. In a previous test, the sucrose content tripled and the starch dropped by 80 percent after 3 months of storage at 12.5^oC. Paull, R.E., and N.J. Chen. 1988. Compositional changes in yam bean during storage. Hortscience 23:194–196." ^[LCAV2]

Use as an Additive: "Starch is not infrequently mentioned as an addition to paint, either as an adulterant or extender, or as a substrate for dyestuffs." and "Carlyle (2001) found various mentions of starch used not directly as a pigment, but to gelatinise oil paint^{[Eastaugh PC]} "Starch-rich raw materials are widely used in the food industry. Their functionality and end-use applications are markedly influenced by starch characteristics. Starches with varying amylose (AM) and amylopectin (AP) content are of particular interest due to their ability to influence and modify the texture, quality and stability of starch-based food products." ^{[Schirmer, M., et al.,2013]}

Use as Biopolymers

"Natural polymers by themselves are a class of polymers which refer to polymers sourced from nature (plants or animals). They include mainly carbohydrates and proteins which exist in plants and animals providing mainly structural support." ^{[Olatunji NP]}

"Like synthetic polymers, natural polymers can be grouped based on their formation method as addition and condensation polymers. Most natural polymers are condensation polymers which are formed as a result of monomer units combining to form a small molecule (usually water) as a by-product. Additional polymers are those formed by direct combination of the monomer units making up the polymer without any by-product. Polymers existing in nature can be grouped into six main classifications with respect to their sources: Proteins, polysaccharides polynucleotides, polyisoprenes, polyesters, and lignin (Atkins 1987)." ^{[Olatunji NP]}

"Starch is one of the commonly used plant-based polymers for food packaging and preparation of edible coatings [54]. Its solubility in water due to the amylopectin and amylose chains is of considerable importance for its usage. In addition, relative advantages of cost-effectiveness, availability, ease of processing, of natural origin, and barrier properties against oxygen makes it a choice material for selection when formulating edible coatings [25]. However, in solitude, starch has a few limitations especially relating to its mechanical strength such as tensile strength and elongation and must be prepared as a composite with other materials by casting, chem- ical modification, blending, plasticizing, extrusion, or by combination of two or more of these operations [55]. To reduce its brittleness, starch is often plasticized with xylitol, urea, sorbitol, polyethers, or glycerol." ^{[Chhikara FF]}

"Starch is one of the less expensive biodegradable materials used for many non-food items such as textile sizing, cardboard, and paper making. In recent times, starch has been employed as the major polymer in thermoplastic compositions and has been processed into various materials such as utensils and it also has been used as raw material for film production (Canigueral et al. 2009)." ^{[Olatunji NP]}

"Starch and cellulose are not plastics in their native form, but are converted into plastics through various approaches, including extrusion cooking, functionalization, and plasticization. Starch is one of the least expensive biodegradable materials available in the world market today. It is a versatile biopolymer with immense potential for use in non-food industries. Starch-based polymers can be produced from corn, rice, wheat, or potatoes." ^{[Mohanty NFBB]}

Modified Starch: "Starches and modified starches are used by the food industry for cake mixes, pie fillings, frozen and canned foods, and jellies (Chinachoti, 1995). When starch granules are heated at 56-68~ (or higher) in water, all of the hydrogen bonds between its chains lose contact with each other and, instead associate with water. The result of heating is a viscous suspension, or gelatination. To prevent the re-formation of a solid gel, with heating, the food industry adds phosphate groups to the hydroxyl residues of starch, to add a repelling force between adjacent chains of sugars, thus maintaining the starch in gel form." ^{[NB Brody]}

"The starches purified from some plants, such as cassava (tapioca starch) or potato, are too viscous for use by the food industry. They create a gummy texture in foods and reduce their palatability. These root starches develop a rubbery texture when cooked. Some starches, such as corn starch and wheat starch, form the desired texture when cooked, but with cooling these starches form a gel that eventually loses its water-binding properties. This process, which results in water separation, is called syneresis. Syneresis occurs with freezing or storage at low temperatures. The foregoing problems (gumminess and syneresis) can be avoided by modifying food starch prior to adding it to the food. Modification can be effected by acid treatment, hypochlorite treatment (oxidation), and by drying the starch and heat- ing it (Wurzburg, 1995)." ^{[NB Brody]}

"Acid treatment results in partial hydrolysis of the sugar-to-sugar bonds in the starch, i.e., an event similar or identical to that catalyzed, during digestion, by amylase. Hypochlorite treatment results in the conversion of hydroxyl groups to carboxyl groups, aldehyde groups, or ketones.
In making candy (gumdrops), corn starch is added to the hot, liquified product. Pouring this liquid into the candy mold is difficult, unless the starch is first processed by acid treatment. Oxidized starches are mainly used in breaded foods. This additive improves adhesion of the batter to fish or meat. Dry heat converts starch to a product called dextrin. Dextrins are used for coating candies, for imparting a gloss to baked goods, and for encapsulating oils and oily flavors to form a dry powder (Wurzburg, 1995)." ^{[NB Brody]}

Selective Breeding

"Plant breeding has led to specialty starches with atypical proportions of amylose and amylopectin. Waxy maize starch with nearly 100 percent amylopectin is inherently stable to retrogradation. Chemically cross-linked waxy maize starch is a very high-quality modified starch. High-amylose starches have become available more recently and have led to lower caloric starches. Because of the crystallinity of these starches they are partially resistant to digestion by intestinal amylases and behave as dietary fiber when analyzed by the official methods of analysis for dietary fiber. Some of these high-amylose starches contain as high as 60 percent dietary fiber when analyzed." ^{[Katz EFC]}

"Inbreeding is also helpful for detecting useful genes and one of these is the waxy locus (Wx), which encodes the starch granule-bound glucosyl transferase (GBSS). The ‘waxy’ starch lacks amylose, and starch composed exclusively of amylopectin is advantageous for commercial appli- cations. A clone resulting from the screening of self populations has been shown to present a naturally occurring mutation on the Wx locus and the strategy is now to transfer this mutation to other genotypes. It is expected that about 25% of the progenies obtained from the second cycle of crosses will be homozygous for the Wx locus and will produce amylose-free starch (Ceballos et al., 2008)." ^{[Lebot TRTC]}

Digestability

"Carbohydrates generally supply about 45% of our energy requirement. Dietary carbohydrates include monosaccharides (such as glucose and fructose), disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose), and the longer-chain oligo- and polysaccharides. (Polysaccharides with fewer than 15 monosaccharide units are classed as oligosaccharides.) Dietary polysaccharides include starches, such as amylose and amylopectin, and some of the dietary fibers." ^{[NB Brody]}

"The nutritional value of uncooked (ungelatinized) starchy foods (cereal grains, potato, peas, and beans) is relatively poor. Our digestive enzymes do not readily convert the native granular starch of uncooked fruits and vegetables into glucose that would be absorbed in the small intestine. Undigested starch passes into the large intestine where, along with dietary fiber, it is broken down to glucose and fermented to short-chain fatty acids. Some of these short-chain acids are absorbed from the large intestine resulting in recovery of some of the caloric value of the native starch." ^{[Katz EFC]}

"The starch in plants occurs in small microscopic granules that have a core of starch surrounded by a network of protein. In the granules, amylopectin has an orderly crystalline structure, whereas amylose is somewhat amorphous. The orderly structure of the starch molecules may impair digestion by pancreatic amylase. The occurrence of starch in granules, whether in wheat, potatoes, bananas, or other foods, may prevent the digestion of up to 50% of the starch in these foods when they are consumed in the raw state. Cooking results in hydration of the starch molecules and in the swelling and gelatinization of the starch granules, increasing the susceptibility of the starch to enzymatic hydrolysis, with a consequent increase in digestibility." ^{[NB Brody]}

"The susceptibility of starch to hydrolysis by α-amylase has been shown to vary with botanical origin; nevertheless, it is not clear what structural features affect the degree of digestion. Extent of digestibility is known to be related to crystalline polymorphic forms, and it is accepted that starch with ‘A’ type X-ray diffraction is more susceptible to amylolysis than that with a ‘B’ type pattern (Jane et al., 1997, Planchot et al., 1997, Valetudie et al., 1993). The inferior crystallites composing linked branch points and the shorter double helices of A-type starch would be more readily digested by α-amylase (Jane et al., 1997). In addition to the crystalline polymorphic form, the fraction of crystalline structures in the starch (Planchot et al., 1997), molecular associations between starch components (Dreher, Berry, & Dreher, 1984), amylose content (Fuwa et al., 1977, Noda et al., 2002), granule size (Snow and O'Dea, 1981, Valetudie et al., 1993), granule shape (Valetudie et al., 1993) and surface pores (Jane et al., 1997) have all been mentioned in enzyme digestibility. Among these factors, granular structure is considered to be the most important in defining the rate and extent of enzymatic hydrolysis (Zhang & Oates, 1999). Electron microscopy studies have shown that α-amylase attacks the granule surface before penetrating through internal channels then hydrolyzing the granule from inside out (Li, Vasanthan, Hoover, & Rossnagel, 2004). External chains of amylopectin that construct the crystalline structures of starch granules likely affect the rate of hydrolysis; nevertheless, information concerning the contribution of amylopectin unit-chain length distribution to the enzyme digestibility of various starches has not been reported." ^{[Srichuwong et al.,2005]}

Bananas

"The starch content in plant foods changes with the age of the plant, that is, it decreases during the ripening process, with the concomitant production of free glucose. Starch may account for 3-82% of the dry matter of bananas, depending on ripeness (Table 3.1). Apparently bananas are good sources of carbohydrate, whether unripe or overripe. However, are unripe bananas really good sources of carbohydrates? The ripening process involves the hydrolysis of the starch in the ripening plant. This activity is a form of autolysis (self-digestion). The starch also can be broken down after consumption via the action of pancreatic (x-amylase, as well as other enzymes. The effect of amylase in cleaving banana starch is illustrated.... The data show the effects of attempts to digest banana starch in a test tube. The starch was mixed with hog pancreas amylase and incubated. Then the extent of hydrolysis was measured. As indicated in the table, different treatments were used. About half the starch in a raw banana resisted hydrolysis, but all the starch in a cooked banana was hydrolyzed. On cooling a cooked banana, a small fraction of the starch lost its susceptibility to hydrolysis." ^{[NB Brody]}

"Cooking disrupts the structure of the starch molecules in the grains, resulting in a marked increase in their digestibility. With cooling, the starch molecules regain a more orderly structure, resulting in a slight increase in resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis, as illustrated in the study with banana starch. The reversion to an organized structure with cooling is called the "crystallization" of starch. Although this process may not result in a significant effect on the nutritional value of the food, it may detract from its aesthetic value. For example, freshly baked bread may be quite appealing. With storage for a day or so, the bread loses its appeal and is called "stale." The original consistency of the bread can be revived by heating it. The staling effect occurs because of the crystallization of the bread starch. The revival by heating results because of the disruption of its orderly structure." ^{[NB Brody]}

Sources of Starch

"In millets starch percentage ranges from 65-80%. The percentage of amylose and amylopectin content vary among the grains which ranges from 16-28% and 72-84%, respectively. Total sugars present in the grain ranges from 1.5 to 2.1 %. Sucrose is the predominant sugar in millets and constitutes 1.5% of its total sugar weight [46]." ^{[Chhikara FF]}

Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato) - "Sweet potato starch granules are made up of amylopectin and amylose molecules. Starches isolated from three Chinese cultivars have been shown to differ in granule size and particle size distribution but the amylose contents are similar (19.3–20.0%)." ^{[Lebot TRTC]}

"Most cereals contain 70–75% amylopectin. Almost all the starch disappears in the gastro-intestinal tract, only a small portion of the starch (1–5%) resists enzymatic hydrolysis when cereal foods are thermally abused. Thus, the residual starch can be quantified as soluble dietary fiber residue which could be highly susceptible to fermentation in the large intestine [45, 46]. Millet fiber is more concentrated in its bran, which is termed as complex unavailable polysaccharides and therefore produces more health benefits. Due to higher viscosity, glycemic index and water holding capacity dietary fibres that are potent in reduction of blood glucose level as well as insulin response [47, 48]." ^{[Chhikara FF]}

• Malus fusca - "Total starch levels (amylase and amylopectin) in ripened fruits do not exceed 1% (Table 12.2). In cider processing, fruits with higher levels of starch—that is, those which are not completely mature—will produce a lower alcohol level because yeast does not hydrolyze these polysaccharides. Starch may also be responsible for the turbidity of the final product (Smock and Neubert 1950; Beveridge 1997; Demiate et al. 2003)." ^{[Hui HPBFFBT]}
• Manihot esculenta - "Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is one of the most important sources of commercial production of starch along with potato, maize and wheat (Davis, Supatcharee, Khandelwal, & Chibbar, 2003) particularly for tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Moorthy, 2002). It is the third most important source of calories in tropics, after rice and maize. Natural mutation (Ceballos et al., 2007), and induced ones (Ceballos et al., 2008) in cassava starch have recently been reported leading to new starches with low and high-amylose contents." ^{[Rolland-Sabaté et al.,2012]}Cassava Root reported as having 17% Amylose/83% Amylopectin ^{[NB Brody]}
• Oryza sativa - Rice: "The main differences in rices are due to the proportions of the two types of starch present in the grain; in amylose the glucose molecules are arranged in a linear fashion, and in amylopectin they are branched. The more amylose present in rice, the drier and fluffier the grains are when cooked and the less they tend to disintegrate upon cooking. If the amylopectin portion is high, the grains become sticky and tend to disintegrate upon cooking. Sticky or glutinous rice, as it is also called, consists essentially of starch that is pure amylopectin." ^{[PPGT Anderson]}
• Sorghum Sp.; "The starches in the grains of most sorghums have gelatinization temperatures around 70°C. They must reach that temperature to become cooked and edible. However, research has shown that some sorghums have starches whose gelatinization temperature is only about 55°C. This can reduce the cooking time required. These sorghums have waxy kernels (endosperm) rather than hard vitreous ones. Thus, they cannot always be used in the normal manner. Nonetheless, there is a good possibility that they will make nontraditional quick-cooking products that will appeal to many.
  These unusual types are found especially in East Asia. The starch in their grains is entirely amylopectin, rather than amylose and other normal forms." ^[LCOAG]
• Vigna angularis - Adzuki bean; "Sucrose, raffinose, stachyose, and cyclitols are the part of sugars and monogalactosyl present as their respective derivatives in adzuki bean seeds. Different storage conditions (temperature and relative humidity) affect starch content (Yousif et al., 2003). The highest amylose and resistant starch content was found in adzuki bean variety." ^{[Farooq NUC]}
• Vigana umbellate - Rice bean; "Starch is a major portion of total carbohydrates in ricebean seeds, about 52%-57% total dry matter content, with 35.20% and 64.80% amylose and amylopectin content, respectively (Chavan et al., 2009). Ricebean has lower average starch digestibility than faba bean (32.86 vs. 42 mg maltose release/g meal) (Kaur and Kapoor, 1990a; Saharan et al., 2002), an appreciable amount of total soluble sugars (5.0e5.60 g/ 100 g) and nonreducing sugars (4.70e5.30 g/100 g), and less starch than faba bean (50e55 g/100 g) (Saharan et al., 2002; Katoch, 2013)." ^{[Farooq NUC]}

Fiber

"Fiber is grouped by its physical properties and is called soluble, insoluble or resistant starch. It was found that millet contains 6.3% insoluble fiber and 0.6% soluble fiber [11]. The most abundant fiber constituents in cereals are cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, pectins, and gums and almost all fiber types listed are present in millets." ^{[Chhikara FF]}

Gums

"Gums are polymers acquired from shrubs and trees from Africa and Asia. Gums are complex polysaccharides made of units of galactose and mannose. Gums are used by the food industry to prevent ice crystal formation in ice cream and candy; to prevent separation of oils and water in various beverages, and to prevent the leakage of water from proc- essed cheese." ^{[NB Brody]}

Hemicellulose

Xylan - cell wall polysaccharide. "associated with cellulose, can replace cellulose in some green and red algae" ^{[Hostettmann HCBPAM]}

"The main hemicelluloses found in plants are xylans (1,4-linked polymers of the pentose sugar xylose), but arabans (polyarabinose), galactans (polygalactose), mannans and copolymers (e.g. glucomannans and galactoglucomannans) are also encountered. The major angiosperm hemicellulose is a xylan with up to 35% of the xylose residues acetylated, and it is also substituted with 4-O-methylglucuronic acid in dicotyledonous plants. Enzymes responsible for hemicellulose degradation are named according to their substrate specificity; for example, mannanases degrade mannans, xylanases degrade xylans, etc. As xylans predominate in plant walls, more is known about xylanases." ^{[Moore 21stFungi]}

"Xylanases can be induced by their substrate, the response being for the fungus to produce a complex of enzymes rather than a single one. The complex consists of at least two endoxylanases and a b-xylosidase. The endoxylanases degrade xylan to xylobiose and other oligosaccharides while the xylosidase degrades these smaller sugars to xylose. Some arabinose is also formed, showing that the xylanase complex is able to hydrolyse the branch points in xylan." ^{[Moore 21stFungi]}

Simple Sugars

Monosaccharides

Arabinose

Fructose (levulose)

Fucose

Galactose

Glucose (dextrose)

"glucose sugar or monosaccharide, C6H12O6, that is the most important carbohydrate in plants and animals. In plants and algae, glucose is formed by photosynthesis." ^{[Mouritsen Seaweeds]}

Hexoses

Hexoses

Mannose

Pentoses

Ribose

Trioses

Xyloses

Disaccharides

Galactose

Lactose

Lactulose

Maltose

Sucrose

Algae-derived carbohydrates

"From a general point of view, green seaweeds contain sulfuric acid polysac- charides, sulfated galactans, and xylans (see the section Green Macroalgae), while brown algae contain alginic acid, fucoidan (sulfated fucose), and laminaran (β-1,3 glucan) (see the section Brown Macroalgae). Red algae contain agars, carrageenans, xylans, floridean starch (amylopectin-like glucan), and water-soluble sulfated galac- tan, as well as porphyran as mucopolysaccharides located in the intercellular spaces (see Red Macroalgae; Table 8.1; Kumar et al., 2008). Contents of both total and species-specific polysaccharides show seasonal variations." ^{[Fleurence SHDP]}

"Among the various ingredients, carbohydrates are the most abundant constituents of marine algae [1,10,11]. Based on degrees of polymerization (DPs), carbohydrates, also called saccharides, exist in marine algae as various forms of monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides [1]. Marine carbohydrates have been utilized in cosmeceutical industries due to their chemical and physical properties [12,13]. Fucoidans/alginate from brown algae, ulvans from green algae and carrageenans/agar from red algae are used as gelling, thickening and stabilizing agents [2,6,12,14]. In addition, accumulating reports suggest that marine carbohydrates have been proven to exhibit potential benefits for skin [2,12]." ^{[Kim, Ji Hye, et al.,2018]}

"In 2002, Fujimura’s group found that topical application of brown algae Fucus vesiculosus (Bladder wrack) aqueous extracts improved the thickness and elasticity of human cheek skin [20]. These results suggest that the F. vesiculosus extract possesses anti-aging activities and may be useful for a variety of cosmetics [20]." ^{[Kim, Ji Hye, et al.,2018]}

"Brown seaweeds contain several nutraceutical components (laminaran, fucoidan, polyphenols) that can positively influence human health (Plaza et al., 2008). Of these, laminaran modulates the immune response (Neyrinck et al., 2007) among other activities, such as anti-tumor (Jolles et al., 1963) and anti-apoptosis (Kim et al., 2006), that have been discovered for this compound. Fucoidan, by contrast, affects the secretion of extracellular matrix proteins (Moon et al., 2008), influences the proliferation of cells (Haroun-Bouhedja et al., 2000, Koyanagi et al., 2003) and can activate apoptosis (Aisa et al., 2005). Anticoagulant, anti-tumor, anti-thrombosis, anti-inflammatory and antiviral properties are also well known for fucoidan (Berteau and Mulloy, 2003, Boisson-Vidal et al., 1995). Furthermore, these biological activities are dominated by the structure of the polysaccharides, which vary for each seaweed species."^{[Rioux et al.,2010]}

"Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies showed that marine algae extracts and algal carbohydrates showed various biological activities against skin disorders including hyperpigmentation, wrinkles, dry skin disorders, skin inflammation and skin cancer. However, although diverse biological activities of marine carbohydrates have been determined, their detailed molecular mechanisms and target proteins are not fully understood." ^{[Kim, Ji Hye, et al.,2018]}

"Among marine algae, brown algae have been reported to contain fucoxanthin (FUCO), nonstarch polysaccharides and lipids (phospho- and glycolipids), which are widely studied for their versatile functions like anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancerous [12]. FUCO is the primary carotenoid found in the brown algae chloroplast and is recognized for its weight reduction, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory properties [13]. Dietary FUCO is hydrolyzed to fucoxanthinol (FXOH) in the intestine that is readily absorbed and enters systemic circulation through the lymph and functions as a superior antioxidant than the parent molecule FUCO [14]. Seaweed polysaccharides (PS) are majorly composed of laminaran, fucoidan and alginate [15]...." ^{[Sharma&Baskaran.,2021]}

"In the terrestrial blue-green alga, Nostoc flagelliforme, the main carbohydrate has been identified as nostoflan, which is composed mainly of glucose, galactose, xylose and mannose, and less of fucose that is common in the brown sea algae (Kanekiyo et al., 2008). Shimonaga et al. (2007) reported that red algae produce mainly floridean starch, and the unicellular species, Porphyridium purpureum, produces both amylopectin-type and amylose-type α-Polyglucans. Another species, Cynadium caldarium, synthesises glycogen-type polyglucans rather than starch. Laminarin, a β-glucan, has been identified in other seaweeds (Deville et al., 2007) and may be less digestible by animal enzymes and therefore be more suitable as prebiotic than products that are predominantly α-glucan in nature." ^{[Dominguez FIAFN]}

Seaweed oligosaccharides

-

Other Seaweed Carbohydrates

"Porphyran has been reported to scavenge oxidative radicals in vitro [55], and to increase antioxidant enzyme activity and antioxidant capacity in aging mice [56,57]." ^{[Kim, Ji Hye, et al.,2018]}

Polysaccharides

"Polysaccharides fulfil two main functions in living organisms: as food reserves and as structural elements. Plants accumulate starch as their main food reserve, a material that is composed entirely of glucopyranose units, but in two types of molecule." ^{[MNP Dewick]}

"Polysaccharides are of various types depending on their structure or function. In terms of function there are three main types; storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen, structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin, and gel forming polysaccharides such as alginic acid and mucopolysaccharides (Yui 2005). They can also be branched or straight chained polymers, ionic or nonionic (cationic and anionic) polymers." ^{[Olatunji NP]}

Seaweed Polysaccharides

"Alginic acid ... is a linear polysaccharide formed principally by β1->4 linkage of d-mannuronic acid residues, though sometimes residues of the C-5 epimer l-guluronic acid are also part of the structure. Alginic acid is the main cell wall constituent of brown algae (seaweeds). Some bacteria also produce alginates; the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa secretes alginates as a viscous coating when it infects lung tissue in cystic fibrosis. Salts of algal alginic acid are valuable thickening agents in the food industry, and the insoluble calcium salt is the basis of absorbable alginate surgical dressings." ^{[MNP Dewick]}

"Alginic acid (Figure 8.20) is obtained by alkaline (Na2CO3) extraction of a range of brown seaweeds, chiefly species of Laminaria (Laminariaceae) and Ascophyllum (Phaeophyceae) in Europe, and species of Macrocystis (Lessoniaceae) on the Pacific coast of the USA. The carbohydrate material constitutes 20–40% of the dry weight of the algae. The acid is usually converted into its soluble sodium salt or insoluble calcium salt. Sodium alginate finds many applications as a stabilizing and thickening agent in a variety of industries, particularly food manufacture, and also the pharmaceutical industry, where it is of value in the formulation of creams, ointments, and tablets. Calcium alginate is the basis of many absorbable haemostatic surgical dressings. Alginic acid or alginates are incorporated into many aluminium- and magnesium-containing antacid preparations to protect against gastro-oesophageal reflux. Alginic acid released by the action of gastric acid helps to form a barrier over the gastric contents." ^{[MNP Dewick]}

"Fucoidans are major sulfated polysaccharides (SPs) found in the cell wall of some brown algae [10]. Numerous studies have reported the benefits of fucoidans for diverse skin disorders including pigmentation, skin aging, atopic dermatitis and skin carcinogenesis." ^{[Kim, Ji Hye, et al.,2018]}

"In recent years, fucoidan extracts have attained regulatory approvals in a number of global jurisdictions for use in foods and dietary supplements." ^{[Fitton et al.,2019]}

"The oral bioavailability of fucoidan preparations is generally low, although recent studies have elegantly demonstrated the uptake and tissue distribution of Fucus vesiculosus fucoidan in a rat model [25]. A Japanese study has further confirmed the bioavailability of fucoidan and its excretion in urine, after ingestion of whole seaweed [26]. This follows their earlier work demonstrating the uptake of orally delivered fucoidan in serum and urine [27].... The recently described observations of clinical efficacy of orally delivered fucoidan for chronic renal failure indicate probable systemic uptake [5] in humans." ^{[Fitton et al.,2019]}

"... a clinical topical study using a cream containing 4% fucoidan was found to be effective for treating oral herpes [38]. This topical application is supported by a substantial body of research indicating excellent inhibitory activity against herpes viruses [39]." ^{[Fitton et al.,2019]}

"The use of fucoidans as potential agents in oncology has been recently reviewed by others and is briefly expanded upon here [3,15]. The mechanism by which fucoidans could induce either a direct or indirect anticancer effect is better understood. The modulation of immune activity by fucoidans shows promise, not only as an anti-inflammatory agent, but also as a potential vaccine adjuvant. This immune-modulatory effect may also represent an additional anticancer mechanism for fucoidans. Observations in elderly Japanese subjects showed that oral administration of a fucoidan extract enhanced their response to influenza vaccines [16]. The mechanism for this useful activity may be associated with the ability of fucoidans to bind to Toll-like receptors [17]. Another emerging application in the literature is the use of fucoidans in ocular diseases [18], particularly age-related macular degeneration due to their ability to interfere with the activity of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [19]." ^{[Fitton et al.,2019]}

"Fucoidans continue to be developed as bioactive oral supplements and will likely increase their market presence in the future. Gut health, oral health and anti-inflammatory applications are already partly commercialised for use in humans, livestock and pets, with the recent suite of regulatory approvals for fucoidan extracts in the US and EU likely to spur further growth in these sectors.
... Regulatory approval of a fucoidan preparation for chronic renal failure has provided clinically useful outcomes in China. Fucoidans have enormous potential as part of drug delivery systems and devices, and they show particular near-market potential in imaging and in treatments for thrombosis. Safety studies on radiolabelled fucoidan have been carried out with a view to regulatory approval for clinical imaging applications....
Orally bioavailable adjunct therapies for neurological disease, bacterial and viral infections, and oncology also appear to be commercial possibilities with research now progressing into the clinical trial phase." ^{[Fitton et al.,2019]}

"Laminaran (also known as laminarin) is one of the major non-SPs found in brown algae. The biological activities of fucoidans have been well-studied, while those of laminaran have been poorly understood to date. Laminaran from the brown algae Saccharina longicruris has been reported to show skin anti-aging induced by UVA/UVB in an in vivo model [50]." ^{[Kim, Ji Hye, et al.,2018]}

"The brown algae have storage laminaran (β-D-glucopyranose), a combination of soluble and insoluble chains of the type β-1,3 and β-1,6-D-glucans." ^{[ECOStud-219]}

"Laminaran, a polysaccharide extracted from marine algae, exhibits attractive properties being non-toxic, hydrophilic and biodegradable." ^{[Sellimi, Sabrine, et al.,2018]} "Laminaran is a ß-glucan that has shown anti-apoptotic and anti-tumoral activities". ^{[Rioux et al.,2010]}

"Laminaran has many advantages, including low cellular toxicity, biodegradability, and high biocompatibility [11]. A diverse array of bioactivities has been reported for laminaran, such as anti-apoptotic [12], anti-inflammatory [13], immunoregulatory [14, 15], antitumor [16], anticoagulant [17] and antioxidant activities [18]." ^{[Sellimi, Sabrine, et al.,2018]}

"It is present in either soluble or insoluble forms. The first form is characterized by complete solubility in cold water, while the other is only soluble in hot water (Black and Dewar, 1973, Percival and McDowell, 1967). The solubility is also influenced by the presence of branching, with the higher the branching content the higher the solubility in cold water. Two types of laminaran have been described, one type with chains that are terminated by d-mannitol residues (M-series) and another type with chains terminated by d-glucose residues (G-series) (Nelson and Lewis, 1974). Laminaran is composed of d-glucose with β-(1,3) linkages (Barry, 1939), with β-(1,6) intrachain branching (Peat et al., 1958). Ratios of the two types of laminaran, as well as their structures, can vary according to the seaweed species, as well as environmental factors such as nutritive salts and frond age (Chizhov et al., 1998, Rioux et al., 2009). These factors are also believed to influence the biological activity of laminaran." ^{[Rioux et al.,2010]}

Anticancer: "In the last decade, numerous studies reported promising anti-cancer effects of laminarin involving enhanced apoptotic cellular death, colony formation inhibition and angiogenic potential inhibition...." ^{[Zargarzadeh et al.,2020]}

"Ji and colleagues reported on laminarin’s capacity to inhibit human colorectal adenocarcinoma (LoVo) cell proliferation and induce apoptosis via mitochondrial or death receptor pathways (Ji & Ji, 2014; Ji, Ji, & Zhang, 2012)." ^{[Zargarzadeh et al.,2020]}

"These polysaccharides have been found to exert potent immunomodulating, radioprotective, and anticancer activities (Kadam, Tiwari, & O’Donnell, 2015). Recently it was reported that sulfated derivatives of laminarans are more effective than native laminarans in the inhibition of proliferation, colony formation, migration, and induction of apoptosis of cancer cells (Ji, Ji, & Meng, 2013; Malyarenko et al., 2017; Park, Kim, Kim, & Nam, 2012)." ^{[Malyarenkob et al.,2019]}

"Native and sulfated laminarans from the brown alga D. dichotoma exhibited significant anticancer activity against melanoma cells when administered at non-toxic doses. At low doses the polysaccharides were able to selectively sensitize melanoma cells to X-ray irradiation, resulting in significant inhibition of cell proliferation, colony formation, and cancer cell migration. The molecular mechanism of this effect was found to involve the down-regulation of MMP-2 and MMP-9 protein kinase activity,..." ^{[Malyarenkob et al.,2019]}

Antibacterial: "The results showed that LME extract [from Sargassum crassifolium] at a concentration of 250 mg/mL is bacteriostatic against Gram-positive [Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus] and –negative bacteria [Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli]." ^{[Chamidah et al.,2017]}

Conversion into glucose: "Laminarin can be hydrolysed to glucose using a laminarinase, which cleaves the ß-1,3-linkages of d-glucan to form oligosaccharides with 2 to 10 residues. Laminarinase is an endo-ß-glucanase that may cleave either (1 -> 3), (1 -> 4), (1 -> 6) or mixed (1 -> 3), (1 -> 4), (1 -> 6) linkages into glucose units [11]. Beta-glucanases are specifically used as biocatalysts in industrial processes, such as the brewing, poultry and biofuel industries. These enzymes form part of the glycoside hydrolase (GH) family and are relatively widespread among microorganisms, including various filamentous fungi and yeasts [12]." ^{[Rocher et al.,2021]}

"The yeast S. cerevisiae remains the ideal host organism for industrial bioethanol production, since it can tolerate high ethanol concentrations [15]. However, S. cerevisiae cannot produce enough of its native laminarinase-like enzyme for effective hydrolysis of laminarin. Microorganisms known to produce efficient amounts of laminarinase, such as T. viride, T. reesei and R. emersonii, have a lower ethanol tolerance, thus reducing their potential use in industry. Efficient conversion of the laminarin from brown macroalgae into bioethanol thus requires the development of recombinant S. cerevisiae yeast strains that express effective laminarinases." ^{[Rocher et al.,2021]}

Ulvans

"Ulvan represents a class of sulfated heteropolysaccharide extracted from the cell wall of green seaweeds like Ulva, Enteromorpha, and Utricularia belonging to Ulvales that is responsible for maintaining osmotic stability and provides protection to the cell. It constitutes about 8–29% of the algal dry weight [116, 117]." ^{[Marine Algae]}

"The composition of ulvan has been extensively debated and has been shown to vary according to several factors including the period of collection, the ecophysiological growth conditions, taxonomic origins, and the postcollection treatment of the algal sources. It is composed mainly of rhamnose, glucuronic acid, iduronic acid, xylose, glucose, with sulfate and traces of galactose." ^{[Marine Algae]}

"Ulvans are sulfated heteropolysaccharides extracted from the cell wall of green algae Ulva pertusa [52]. Ulvans are water-soluble sulfated polysaccharides and their main constituents are rhamnose, xylose, glucose, uronic acid and sulfate." ^{[Kim, Ji Hye, et al.,2018]}

"The most striking feature that distinguishes the chemical composition of ulvan from that of the other polysaccharides of marine origin is the presence of the uncommon sugars, iduronic, and sulfated rhamnose. The ubiquitous occurrence of rhamnose in this algal polysaccharide can be considered as an advantage, particularly for the treatment of skin pathologies. In general, rhamnose-rich polysaccharides demonstrate anti-inflammatory properties, diminish skin bacterial adhesion, protect it from UV-induced and age-related injuries, and stimulate cellular proliferation and collagen biosynthesis [129, 130]." ^{[Marine Algae]}

Floridean starch

"The storage polysaccharide of the red algae is known as floridean starch" ^{[Dominguez FIAFN]}

"In Rhodophyta, carbohydrates synthesized from carbon fixation are stored as floridean starch, which is characterized by a1,4-D and a1,6-glucans." ^{[ECOStud-219]}

"Floridean starch, which is formed in the cytoplasm outside the chloroplasts, is chemically similar to the amylopectin of higher plant starches." ^[GPOD]

Floridean starch "... has a similar structure as starch without amylose. However, it was confirmed that some species of red algae form also amylose units. Another difference is the imposition of granules of floridean starch outside the plastids (Shimonaga et al., 2007)." ^[HMA]

Other Carbohydrates

Chitosan: "Chemical deacetylation of chitin provides chitosan, a valuable industrial material used for water purification because of its chelating properties and in wound-healing preparations." ^{[MNP Dewick]}

Chondroitin: "Chondroitin is another glycosaminoglycan widely distributed in animal tissues, particularly connective tissue, and is a major component of cartilage, lubricating and cushioning joints. It is based on a repeating disaccharide unit of glucuronic acid linked β1-> to N-acetylgalactosamine, with the disaccharide units then connected β1→4. It is typically found as chondroitin sulfate, the polymer having varying sulfation patterns, though mainly monosulfation at positions 4 and 6 of the GalNAc residues". sup>[MNP Dewick]

Glycogen: "The mammalian carbohydrate storage molecule is glycogen, which is analogous to amylopectin in structure, but is larger and contains more frequent branching, about every 10 residues." ^{[MNP Dewick]}

"This is the polysaccharide reserve that’s found in animal tissues, and in the fungi themselves. Most fungi are likely to encounter glycogen in their surroundings, as they are likely to be surrounded by dead and dying fungal cells." ^{[Moore 21stFungi]}

"Extracellularly, glycogen, like starch, is degraded by components of the amylase enzyme complex." ^{[Moore 21stFungi]}

Heparin: "The mammalian blood anticoagulant heparin (Figure 8.21) is also a carbohydrate polymer containing glucosamine derivatives, but these alternate with uronic acid residues. Polymers of this kind are known as mucopolysaccharides or glycosaminoglycans. Heparin consists of two repeating disaccharide units, in which the amino functions and some of the hydroxyls are sulfated, producing a heterogeneous polymer. The carboxyls and sulfates together make heparin a strongly acidic water-soluble material." ^{[MNP Dewick]}

"heparin carbohydrate of the glucosamino-glycan type; used as a very effective anticoagulant to prevent blood clots." ^{[Mouritsen Seaweeds]}

Heparan sulfate: "Heparan sulfate is structurally related to heparin, but the chains are longer and more heterogeneous. Heparin is secreted only by mast cells, whereas heparan sulfate is more widely distributed and found in different cell types and tissues." ^{[MNP Dewick]}

Hyaluronic acid: "Hyaluronic acid (Figure 8.21) is a similar polymer based on glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine, though not modified by sulfation; it is a major component of the extracellular matrix and plays an important role in tissue regeneration and wound healing." ^{[MNP Dewick]}

Peptidoglycan:

Diseases Related to Carbohydrates

"Glycogen storage diseases or glycogenoses occur when there is a defect in the enzymes that are involved in the metabolism of glycogen, resulting in growth abnormalities, weakness, and confusion. These diseases are caused by lack of an enzyme needed to convert glucose into glycogen and break down glycogen into glucose. Typical symptoms include weakness, sweating, confusion, kidney stones, and stunted growth." ^{[Eddouks PMDH]}

"About 1 in 20,000 infants has some form of glycogen storage disease. The specific symptoms, age at which symptoms start and their severity vary considerably among these diseases." ^{[Eddouks PMDH]}

"Galactosemia or a high blood level of galactose is caused by lack of one of the enzymes necessary for metabolizing galactose (a sugar in lactose, fruits and vegetables). A deficient enzyme or liver dysfunction can alter the metabolism, leading to high levels of galactose in the blood (galactosemia). There are different forms of galactosemia, but in classic galactosemia a toxic metabolite to the liver and kidneys builds up, that damages the eye lens, causing cataract." ^{[Eddouks PMDH]}

"Fructose intolerance, is a hereditary disorder caused by lack of the enzyme needed to metabolize fructose. As a result, a by-product of fructose accumulates in the body, blocking the formation of glycogen and its conversion to glucose for use as energy." ^{[Eddouks PMDH]}

"Mucopolysaccharidoses, are a group of hereditary disorders when complex sugar molecules are not broken down normally due to the lack of necessary enzymes responsible for its break down and storage, leading to its accumulation in harmful amounts in the tissues." ^{[Eddouks PMDH]}

References

• [Fitton et al.,2019] Fitton, J. Helen, et al. "Therapies from fucoidan: New developments." Marine Drugs 17.10 (2019): 571.
• [Kim, Ji Hye, et al.,2018] Kim, Ji Hye, et al. "Beneficial effects of marine algae-derived carbohydrates for skin health." Marine drugs 16.11 (2018): 459.
• [Koo et al.,1995] Koo JG, Jo KS, Do JR, Woo SJ. 1995. Isolation and purification of fucoidans from Laminaria religiosa and Undaria pinnatifida in Korea. J Kor Fish Soc 28:227–36.
• [Malyarenkob et al.,2019] Malyarenko, Olesya S., et al. "Laminaran from brown alga Dictyota dichotoma and its sulfated derivative as radioprotectors and radiosensitizers in melanoma therapy." Carbohydrate polymers 206 (2019): 539-547.
• [Rioux et al.,2010] Rioux, Laurie-Eve, Sylvie L. Turgeon, and Martin Beaulieu. "Structural characterization of laminaran and galactofucan extracted from the brown seaweed Saccharina longicruris." Phytochemistry 71.13 (2010): 1586-1595.
• [Rocher et al.,2021] Rocher, Dominique F., Rosemary A. Cripwell, and Marinda Viljoen-Bloom. "Engineered yeast for enzymatic hydrolysis of laminarin from brown macroalgae." Algal Research 54 (2021): 102233.
• [Rolland-Sabaté et al.,2012] Rolland-Sabaté, Agnès, et al. "Structural characterization of novel cassava starches with low and high-amylose contents in comparison with other commercial sources." Food hydrocolloids 27.1 (2012): 161-174.
• [Sanjeewa et al.,2017] Sanjeewa, KK Asanka, et al. "The potential of brown-algae polysaccharides for the development of anticancer agents: An update on anticancer effects reported for fucoidan and laminaran." Carbohydrate polymers 177 (2017): 451-459.
• [Schirmer, M., et al.,2013] Schirmer, M., et al. "Physicochemical and morphological characterization of different starches with variable amylose/amylopectin ratio." Food hydrocolloids 32.1 (2013): 52-63.
• [Sellimi, Sabrine, et al.,2018] Sellimi, Sabrine, et al. "Antioxidant, antibacterial and in vivo wound healing properties of laminaran purified from Cystoseira barbata seaweed." International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 119 (2018): 633-644.
• [Sharma&Baskaran.,2021] Sharma, Priya Prakash, and V. Baskaran. "Polysaccharide (laminaran and fucoidan), fucoxanthin and lipids as functional components from brown algae (Padina tetrastromatica) modulates adipogenesis and thermogenesis in diet-induced obesity in C57BL6 mice." Algal research 54 (2021): 102187.
• [Srichuwong et al.,2005] Srichuwong, Sathaporn, et al. "Starches from different botanical sources I: Contribution of amylopectin fine structure to thermal properties and enzyme digestibility." Carbohydrate polymers 60.4 (2005): 529-538.
• [Zargarzadeh et al.,2020] Zargarzadeh, Mehrzad, et al. "Biomedical applications of laminarin." Carbohydrate Polymers 232 (2020): 115774.

Carbohydrate Monographs